Sex-role Definitions Research Articles

Introduction

Introduction

Woman to Woman: Coming Together for Positive Change—Using Empowerment and Popular Education to Prevent HIV in Women

HIV risk is the product of social, cultural, economic, and interpersonal forces that create sex-role definitions and expectations that can lead to gender inequalities in health. Woman to Woman: Coming Together for Positive Change is an HIV/AIDS prevention intervention that takes into account that choices and actions may be constrained by poverty, gender roles, and cultural norms. This project educates and empowers, promotes women's perspectives, reaches women "where they are," and encourages women to speak of their experience. The following study presents the evaluation of the effectiveness of an empowerment based participatory HIV prevention program over a 3-year period, implemented in both rural and urban settings in New Mexico, targeting over 300 women at-risk of HIV/AIDS. In addition, the practicalities of conducting participatory process and outcome evaluation with a small nonprofit with minimal budget will be discussed.

Relationship between gender and food roles in the family

The purpose of this study was to examine male and female roles in the performance of food-related household tasks. A total of 336 couples in four life-cycle stages — young families, maturing families, middle-age empty-nest families, and retirement families — were interviewed in their homes. Despite major societal changes in sex-role definitions and the increased employment of women outside the home, husbands and wives at all life-cycle stages agreed that food selection and preparation should be the domain of women. Consistent with the normative expectation, spouses reported that food-related activities were conducted primarily by wives, with only minor help from husbands. There was little or no marital conflict over the equity of the role expectation and performance. Husbands in the younger life-cycle stages thought that they should do more food preparation, and did in fact do slightly more cooking than husbands in later life cycles, but no more food selection; younger wives also thought that husbands should do more in food-related tasks. Husbands in older families tended to be more involved in food shopping and food budget decisions.

Sexual dysfunction in diabetic women.

This study examined sexual dysfunction in diabetic women. Eighty-one insulin-treated diabetic women were interviewed and administered standardized questionnaires. Using criteria derived from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.) (DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association, Washington, D.C., 1980), 38 (47%) of the women were diagnosed with sexual dysfunction and 43 (53%) did not report sexual problems. The more frequently reported sexual problems were inhibited sexual excitement, inhibited sexual desire, and dyspareunia. Diabetic women with sexual dysfunction were more depressed, more stereotyped in their sex-role definitions, and less satisfied in their sexual relationships than those without sexual dysfunction. The two groups did not differ in metabolic control, insulin dose, duration of diabetes, or frequency of diabetic complications (e.g., neuropathy, etc.). Results suggest that diabetes may be associated with inhibited sexual excitement and dyspareunia in women. Both psychological and physiological concomitants of sexual dysfunction in diabetic women should be considered in diagnostic and treatment programs.

Conceptions of masculinity and femininity as a basis for stereotypes of male and female homosexuals.

To date the majority of research published in relation to homosexuality has been concerned with the homosexual's problems, and with the etiology of homosexuality. As little as 8% of published research has dealt with attitudes toward homosexuals, and less still has been concerned with perceptions of and beliefs about homosexuals. Existing research on the latter is reviewed, and research is outlined that investigates perceptions of homosexuals. Stereotypes of male and female homosexuals are examined in the context of masculine-feminine traits using the Personality Attributes Questionnaire. Results strongly support the view that sex role definitions are a highly salient reference point for the public definition of homosexuals.

Sex-role prescriptions and attitudes of physical educators

The perception of sex-role prescriptions and attitudes of physical educators seem to be related. The results suggest that sensitivity to the changing role of women in society and to the constraints of traditional sex-role definitions should be considered for their potential impact on female students. While this study has focused on attitudes toward females, future analyses of teaching behaviors, classroom situation construction, and curricular objectives in relation to the sex-role prescriptions of our society could provide the basis for maximizing the development of the physical potential of both females and males.

Father-Child Interactions in a Shopping Mall: A Naturalistic Study of Father Role Behavior

Abstract Two hundred and fifty-three mother-father-child triads were unobtrusively observed within a community shopping mall to investigate the nature of naturally occurring father-child interactions. In 91% of fathers' active responses to children's demands, fathers behaved in ways categorized as instrumental or controlling. Affectional or expressive behaviors were observed only 9% of the time. Analysis of patterns of behaviors suggests that ignoring and controlling behaviors were used selectively to promote a relationship consistent with traditional sex-role definitions of behavior. Father-child interactions occurred more frequently when the mother was absent, but the pattern of behavior was not affected by mothers' presence or by the age of the child. The pattern of father-child interactions was affected by the behavior setting and the sex of the child.

Life stress, life-styles, depression, and illness in adult women.

The relationships between life stress and depression and physical illness were investigated in a sample of 122 normal adult women. Results indicated that life stress was associated with both illness and depression in this sample but that both type of stress and life-style were important moderators of these relationships. Thus, work stresses were associated with illness (not depression), and the relationship between life stress and illness was strongest among work-centered women. Family stresses were associated with depression (not illness), and the relationship between life stress and depression was strongest among housewives. Implications for sex role definitions are discussed.

Life stress, life-styles, depression, and illness in adult women.

The relationships between life stress and depression and physical illness were investigated in a sample of 122 normal adult women. Results indicated that life stress was associated with both illness and depression in this sample but that both type of stress and life-style were important moderators of these relationships. Thus, work stresses were associated with illness (not depression), and the relationship between life stress and illness was strongest among work-centered women. Family stresses were associated with depression (not illness), and the relationship between life stress and depression was strongest among housewives. Implications for sex role definitions are discussed.

Expanding Sex‐Role Definitions by Self‐Discovery

Expanding Sex‐Role Definitions by Self‐Discovery

Assessing the Impact of the Women's Movement on Sex-Based Differences in the Handling of Adult Criminal Defendants

The purpose of this report is to evaluate the argument that, with changes in sex roles and the contemporary women's movement, sex differences in the handling of criminal defendants are diminishing. After a review of the empirical evidence, five factors are suggested as helping to account for the apparently consistent finding of preferential treatment (though of small magnitude) of female defendants across most offense categories. These five factors are chivalry, naiveté, practicality, defendants' perceived future criminality, and the perceived danger associated with defendants. The diminution of sex differences in sentencing outcomes must be a result of changes in sentencing practices. In examining the selected factors in the context of sentencing practices, it is argued that (1) the evidence does not show chivalry to be an important determinant of sentencing decisions; rather, the factors of perceived danger and future criminality appear more significant; (2) even if chivalry were a significant determinant, the evidence suggests that court officials remain as chivalrous as ever; and (3) Supreme Court decisions, increasing professionalism of court officials, and bureaucratization of the courts may have reduced sentencing disparities by sex, as they appear to have done with respect to race and social class. It is concluded that changing sex role definitions and the contemporary women's movement have had little impact on sentencing outcomes of either male or female defendants.

Ethnic and social class differences in children's sex-role concepts

Differences in sex-role concepts of 360 Black, Italian, and Jewish children, ages 10 through 17, from middle- and working-class families (as defined by parents' education) were examined through a modifed version of the Sex Role Questionnaire, yielding descriptions of the self and the male and female sex-role stereotypes on both competence and expressive dimensions. As a group, middle-class children have less traditional or more blended sex-role definitions compared to working-class children. Middle-class children view themselves and both sex-role stereotypes as more competent, and middle-class males view themselves as more expressive than do working-class males. While Jewish females describe themselves as extremely expressive and Italian males describe themselves as highly expressive and competent, both Jews and Italians have significantly assimilated the sex-role stereotype definitions of their respective social class groups. In general, Black children describe the male sex-role stereotype as extremely expressive and perceive the two sex roles as fairly similar in expressiveness. Social class status has an opposite effect on sex-role definitions for Blacks than it does for Whites: Black middle-class children view the sex roles as clearly distinct on the competence dimension, describing the male stereotype as extremely competent; Black working-class children see the sex-role stereotypes as more blended on the competence dimension, describing the male sex role stereotype as relatively noncompetent. Ethnic and social class differences are cast in their historical and cultural contexts.

Fertility, sex role attitudes, and labor force participation.

Data from the 1970 National Fertility Study were used to investigate the relationships between sex role attitudes and the childbearing and labor force participation of women. While several relevant dimensions of sex role attitudes were identified, it was found that the most crucial aspect for working and fertility was the extent to which the woman identified the female role as that of housewife and homemaker. Those having traditional definitions concerning this role were less likely to be working, and had fewer plans to work in the future. In addition, as expected, women with traditional sex role definitions had more children than others. While the orientation of the woman toward the home was the primary correlate of work and fertility, those who felt that women had little control over their lives had higher fertility than others—a relationship which could be explained partially, but not entirely, in terms of unplanned childbearing.

The effect of sex role differences on the societal reaction to mental retardation.

This paper investigates the thesis that sex role definitions in the U.S. support a double standard in societal reactions to mental incompetence. Role expectations for women are such that females are generally expected to be less competent than males in a variety of instrumental tasks, although perhaps more expressive. Males in turn are expected to be more active and aggressive than females in their exercise of the greater power and responsibility ascribed to them. In light of these generalized expectations we suggest that incompetence in instrumental fields is more disturbing when demonstrated by males, and we hypothesize that societal reactions to the mental deficiencies of males are more prompt and severe. The paper supports this hypothesis with data suggesting that mentally retarded males are more likely to be institutionalized than retarded females, and that males tend to be institutionalized at earlier ages and for milder disorders. It is noted that these data are consistent with previously reported data on mental illness.

Gender and sex-role appropriateness: Bias in the judgment of disturbed behavior

Male and female undergraduate raters made attributions of mental disorder, personality traits, and diagnostic and treatment judgments for four case studies in which sex of client and sex-role appropriateness of client behavior were manipulated. Significant interactions of sex-role appropriateness with both client sex and rater sex highlighted the significance of sex-role stereotypes in the attribution of mental disorder by nonprofessionals. The data indicated that these cultural sex-role definitions had the strongest negative effect for females and the female sex role. Implications of these findings for the clinical judgment process and female self-perception are discussed.

The value of children to parents in the United States

Data from a national survey of the value of children to parents were analyzed to (a)report the satisfactions of parenthood perceived by married American couples in the childbearing years, (b) test the adequacy of the kloffman and Hoffman (1973) need-based category scheme for conceptualizing the value of children, and (c) examine subgroup diff(~rences to test the hypothesis that groups with fewer alternative means for satisfying a particular need will value children more highly for this quality. Results indicated that the Hoffman and Hoffman (1973) scheme was adequate with some modifications. In both structured and unstructured questions, the two most important values were Primary Group Ties and Stimulation and Fun. The alternatives hypothesis received some support: Groups with less access to economic resources (less educated and blacks) gave more importance to economic-utility values than did others; women with traditional sex-role definitions gave more importance to adult status than did others; unemployed women gave more to fun and stimulation; Jews and nonaffiliated more to immortality; urban residents more to purpose in life. The alternatives hypothesis alone did not work as well in other cases, particularly achievement, probably because the intensity of the need was not considered in this analysis.

Women and Equality.

In this short, closely argued volume William Chafe examines demands, values, and challenges of modern women's movement in historical context and in comparison with demands of movement for racial equality. The problem of both movements is how to achieve and change in institutions and in social and cultural values which sustain them within in which the values of individualism, competition, and material success comprise credo of civil religion. He explores fundamental incompatibility of achievement ethic and social goal of equality and assesses, in light of such strong constraints to social change, likely future of movement for women's equality. His analysis of actual changes of contemporary in regard to place of women and in sex role definitions, personal values, and goals is concise and insightful. His overview of women's history, especially his precise analysis of modern feminist movement, grounds his argument in solid historical scholarship and is in itself valuable introduction to topic for general reader. Chafe's essential concern, however, is not so much interpretation of social movement as problem of historical theory and methodology. It is problem which has vexed most historians of women's history and to which only few have seriously addressed themselves. How to define women as a separate category within cultural norms of society is basic question. Women have historically lived under division of labor, in which they were mainly responsible for child-rearing and home-making, and have been subject to discrimination in employment, law, and custom, yet they have not, by and large, consciously referred to themselves as subordinate group. As Chafe puts it, the differential experiences of women in material conditions of life, and in group orientation according to class, race, and ethnicity, tend to undercut definition of women as homogeneous, self-defined, and coherent group within

Reflections on the Conference on Women and Development: III

Topics discussed at the Wellesley Conference on Women and Development ranged widely. Political questions concerned women's organizations and associations and women's relations to power, the law, and protest movements. Economic issues included women in the labor force, their relations to production and their significance as migrant workers. Other subjects dealt with were the structure of the family, past and present; decision making about family size; and religious sex-role definitions. From the papers and the discussion both about them and about the conference as a whole, it was evident that development per se was not seen as providing the means for women's release from oppressive social-economic and political institutions but, instead, as defining new conditions of constraint. To discuss the impact of development on women's status in society is to confront the fact that women's oppression is inextricably bound up in an exploitative world system of which development, as presently defined, is a part. Consequently, to analyze the status of women in order to change it is to analyze the possibility of fundamental social transformation.

Sex-Role Characterization of Women in "Modern Gothic" Novels

In recent years, with the increased public awareness of the fact of inequality in American society, attention has also been focused on the related issues of defining male and female roles and sex-role stereotypy. This rise in sexual consciousness among women and the concomitant questioning of sex-role definitions can be attributed in no small measure to the Women's Movement and its hallmark publication, The Feminine Mystique (Friedan, 1963). Thus, sociologists, along with others, have begun to devote scholarly attention to this area of interest. Recognizing that roles develop in the social process, are assigned, and their definitions (or expectations) internalized by members, sociologists have begun to explore the part played by different agents in the process of socialization. They have recognized that the mass media provide an important source of informal or unplanned learning for the

Sex Roles in Games

This study investigates the reality of traditional sex role definitions in a game setting. Levels of verbal and nonverbal communication were varied as well as the sex of the partner. There was no difference between males and females in cooperative behavior when no verbal communication was allowed. With verbal communication allowed, there was no difference between males and females interacting in same sex pairs. However, the traditional patterns did appear when subjects were allowed verbal communication with a partner of the opposite sex. This appearance of sex difference only in mixed sex interaction seems to imply a cross-sex reinforcement of traditional role patterns.