Equivalent Set Research Articles

A Technique for Rapid Bacterial-Density Enumeration through Membrane Filtration and Differential Pressure Measurements.

In this article, we present a microfluidic technique for the rapid enumeration of bacterial density with a syringe filter to trap bacteria and the quantification of the bacterial density through pressure difference measurement across the membrane. First, we established the baseline differential pressure and hydraulic resistance for a filtration membrane by fully wetting the filter with DI water. Subsequently, when bacteria were infused and trapped at the pores of the membrane, the differential pressure and hydraulic resistance also increased. We characterized the infusion time required for the bacterial sample to achieve a normalized hydraulic resistance of 1.5. An equivalent electric-circuit model and calibration data sets from parametric studies were used to determine the general form of a calibration curve for the prediction of the bacterial density of a bacterial sample. As a proof of concept, we demonstrated through blind tests with Escherichia coli that the device is capable of determining the bacterial density of a sample ranging from 7.3 × 106 to 2.2 × 108 CFU/mL with mean and median accuracies of 87.21% and 91.33%, respectively. The sample-to-result time is 19 min for a sample with lower detection threshold, while for higher-bacterial-density samples the measurement time is further shortened to merely 8 min.

Natural Forsterite Strongly Enriched in Boron: Crystal Structure and Spectroscopy

Boron is a typical crustal element and largely incompatible in olivine. Most natural olivine samples have very low concentrations of boron. Recently, forsterite with high boron content (up to 60.53 wt% MgO and 1795.91 ppm B) has been discovered in the Jian forsterite jade in the Jian area of northeast China. In this study, B-rich forsterite was examined by electron microprobes, Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, Single crystal X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy. The B-rich forsterite is orthorhombic, existing in space group Pnma, and its unit-cell parameters are: a = 10.1918(7) Å, b = 5.9689(4) Å, c = 4.7484(3) Å, α = 90°, β = 90°, γ = 90°, and V = 288.86(3) Å3. The results of single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis indicate that the unit-cell parameters (a, b, and c) and unit-cell volume of forsterite in Jian forsterite jade are much smaller than those of known olivine. An equivalent set of Raman and infrared spectra were measured for the natural B-rich forsterite and compared to the results for mantle forsterite with a Fo value of ~91. The Raman spectrum of B-rich forsterite is similar to that of mantle olivine. We conclude that the systematic peak position shifts towards higher Raman shift with increasing Fo content. The infrared spectrum of B-rich forsterite crystals is characterized by strong absorption bands at 761, 1168, 1259, and 1303 cm−1, which are assigned to stretching vibrations of BO3 groups. Our data further confirm the existence of the B(F, OH)Si–1O–1 coupled substitution in natural B-rich forsterite.

The names of the leader: the political deification of prabhakaran

ABSTRACT This essay investigates the deification of Prabhakaran, the leader of the Sri Lankan Tamil insurrectionary group, the LTTE. I describe the centrality of death in the ideological economy of the LTTE, with the leader Prabhakaran as the love-object who consecrated and directed such death. Following Ernesto Laclau, I propose that a chain of equivalences is forged in LTTE ideology: to get to Tamil Eelam is to love Prabhakaran. While Tamil militancy’s common solution to the Tamil community’s malaise and suffering under state discrimination and violence was a self-described Tamil homeland, a ‘Tamil Eelam’, the LTTE came to actively create a set of equivalences that centered Prabhakaran as the name of the fullness of that community. This chain of meanings created a path dependency between Tamil Eelam and Prabhakaran, the former actualizable only through the latter. Thus, contemporary Tamil nationalism still labors under the Prabhakaran problem, even after his killing.

Temperature profiles during ureteroscopy with thulium fiber laser and holmium:YAG laser: Findings from a pre-clinical study

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate temperature profiles in both the renal pelvis and parenchyma during Thulium Fiber Laser (TFL) and Holmium:yttrium-aluminium-garnet (Ho:YAG) laser activation in an ex-vivo porcine model. Methods Three porcine kidneys with intact renal pelvis and proximal ureters were used in the study. A temperature sensor was inserted through a nephrostomy tube into the renal pelvis and a second sensor was inserted directly into the renal parenchyma. Temperatures were recorded during continuous laser activation for 180 s, and for an additional 60 s after deactivation. TFL (150 μm and 200 μm) and Ho:YAG (270 μm) laser delivered power at settings of 2.4 W, 8 W, 20 W and 30 W. Results Intrapelvic temperatures correlated directly to power settings. Higher power produced higher temperatures. For example, using a 150 μm fiber at 2.4 W resulted in a 2.6 °C rise from baseline (p = 0.008), whereas using the same fiber at 20 W produced a rise in temperature of 19.9 °C (p = 0.02). Larger laser fibers caused significantly higher temperatures compared to smaller fibers using equivalent power settings, e.g. mean temperature at 20 W using 150 μm was 39.6 °C compared to 44.9 °C using 200 μm, p < 0.001. There was a significant increase in parenchymal temperatures when applying 20 W and 30 W of laser power with the two larger fibers. Conclusion In this ex-vivo study, renal temperatures correlated directly to power settings. Higher power produced higher temperatures. Furthermore, larger laser fibers caused higher temperatures. These findings could help guide selection of safe power settings for ureteroscopic lithotripsy, but future clinical studies are needed for confirmation.

Calcium-binding proteins typify the dopaminergic neuronal subtypes in the ventral tegmental area of zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata.

Calcium-binding proteins (CBPs) regulate neuronal function in midbrain dopamine (DA)-ergic neurons in mammals by buffering and sensing the intracellular Ca2+ , and vesicular release. In birds, the equivalent set of neurons are important in song learning, directed singing, courtship, and energy balance, yet the status of CBPs in these neurons is unknown. Herein, for the first time, we probe the nature of CBPs, namely, Calbindin-, Calretinin-, Parvalbumin-, and Secretagogin-expressing DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra (SN) in the midbrain of zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata. qRT-PCR analysis of ventral midbrain tissue fragment revealed higher Calbindin- and Calretinin-mRNA levels compared to Parvalbumin and Secretagogin. Application of immunofluorescence showed CBP-immunoreactive (-i) neurons in VTA (anterior [VTAa], mid [VTAm], caudal [VTAc]), SN (compacta [SNc], and reticulata [SNr]). Compared to VTAa, higher Calbindin- and Parvalbumin-immunoreactivity (-ir), and lower Calretinin-ir were observed in VTAm and VTAc. Secretagogin-ir was highly localized to VTAa. In SN, Calbindin- and Calretinin-ir were higher in SNc, SNr was Parvalbumin enriched, and Secretagogin-ir was not detected. Weak, moderate, and intense tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-i VTA neurons were demarcated as subtypes 1, 2, and 3, respectively. While subtype 1 TH-i neurons were neither Calbindin- nor Calretinin-i, ∼80 and ∼65% subtype 2 and ∼30 and ∼45% subtype 3 TH-i neurons co-expressed Calbindin and Calretinin, respectively. All TH-i neuronal subtypes co-expressed Parvalbumin with reciprocal relationship with TH-ir. We suggest that the CBPs may determine VTA DA neuronal heterogeneity and differentially regulate their activity in T. guttata.

Finding complete minimum driver node set with guaranteed control capacity

A critical prerequisite for controlling complex networks is to find a driver node set with a structural controllability guarantee. This paper introduces the control capacity for a driver node set and solves the problem of finding a complete minimum driver node set that not only guarantees network structural controllability but achieves the desired level of control capacity. A novel algorithmic framework is proposed which is based on the concept of equivalent set and approximate matching replacement technique. The proposed algorithmic framework is shown to outperform the state-of-the-art approaches in the literature. The validity of the proposed algorithm is analyzed and the performance is evaluated by experiments on artificial and real-world complex networks.

Fuzzy Model for Decision Support under Uncertainty Based on the «Fztotriangle» Transformation

One of the problems of operations research is the problem of choosing the best solution from the set of possible solutions in conditions of uncertainty, when there is no reliable data about the situation requiring a decision. Classical methods of mathematical modeling are focused on point, numerical estimates that characterize the results of possible choice. Moreover, in a situation of significant uncertainty, these methods do not provide unambiguous and mathematically rigorous recommendations for the choice of a solution method. One of the options to overcome these limitations is the use of the apparatus of the theory of fuzzy sets. We propose the method of finding the best solution on the set of fuzzy elements of the evaluation matrix, when the uncertainties of initial data are represented by fuzzy sets (numbers) with different functions of affiliation, which allows you to represent different levels of incomplete information about the situation requiring a decision. The choice of the best decision in conditions when the assessment of possible consequences is represented in the form of fuzzy sets is based on the application to these assessments of FztoTriangle transformation, which allows to obtain integral values for the results of possible decisions on the whole set of conditions characterizing the situation under study, in the form of an equivalent fuzzy set with a triangular identity function. This simplifies the comparison of fuzzy sets representing possible solutions. Performing such transformations does not impose restrictions on the type of affiliation functions of the evaluations used. The final result will be estimates of the consequences of the chosen solution, as well as the possibility of its implementation. The proposed method does not require complex mathematical transformations and can be easily implemented in software as a component of decision support system.

Parametrization of quark and gluon generalized parton distributions in a dynamical framework

We present a parametrization of the chiral even generalized parton distributions, $H$, $E$, $\stackrel{\texttildelow{}}{H}$, $\stackrel{\texttildelow{}}{E}$, for the quark, antiquark, and gluon, in the perturbative QCD (pQCD)-parton framework. Parametric analytic forms are given as a function of two equivalent sets of variables $x$, $\ensuremath{\xi}$, $t$ (symmetric frame) and $X$, $\ensuremath{\zeta}$, $t$ (asymmetric frame), at an initial scale, ${Q}_{o}^{2}$. In the $X&gt;\ensuremath{\zeta}$ region, a convenient and flexible form is obtained as the product of a Regge term $\ensuremath{\propto}{X}^{\ensuremath{-}\ensuremath{\alpha}+{\ensuremath{\alpha}}^{\ensuremath{'}}t}$, describing the low $X$ behavior, times a spectator model-based functional form depending on various mass parameters; the behavior at $X&lt;\ensuremath{\zeta}$ is determined using the generalized parton distributions symmetry and polynomiality properties. The parameters are constrained using data on the flavor separated nucleon electromagnetic elastic form factors, the axial and pseudoscalar nucleon form factors, and the parton distribution functions from both the deep inelastic unpolarized and polarized nucleon structure functions. For the gluon distributions we use, in particular, constraints provided by recent lattice QCD moments calculations. The parametrization's kinematical range of validity is $0.0001\ensuremath{\le}X\ensuremath{\le}\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}0.85$, $0.01\ensuremath{\le}\ensuremath{\zeta}\ensuremath{\le}0.85$, $0\ensuremath{\le}\ensuremath{-}t\ensuremath{\le}1\text{ }\text{ }{\mathrm{GeV}}^{2}$, $2\ensuremath{\le}{Q}^{2}\ensuremath{\le}100\text{ }\text{ }{\mathrm{GeV}}^{2}$. With the simultaneous description of the quark, antiquark, and gluon sectors, this parametrization represents a first tool enabling a global QCD analysis of deeply virtual exclusive experiments.

A MultiHarmonic Finite Element Method for Scattering Problems with Small-Amplitude Boundary Deformations

A finite element method in the frequency domain is proposed for solving scattering problems with moving or, more generally, deforming boundaries. First, the original problem is rewritten as an equivalent weak formulation set in a fixed domain. Next, this formulation is approximated as a simpler weak form based on asymptotic expansions when the amplitude of the movements or the deformations is small. Fourier series expansions of some geometrical quantities and of the solution are next introduced to obtain a coupled multi-harmonic frequency domain formulation. Standard finite element methods can then be applied to solve the resulting problem and a block diagonal preconditioner is proposed to accelerate the Krylov subspace solution of the linear system for high frequency problems. The efficiency of the resulting method is demonstrated on a radar sensing application for the automotive industry.

Using Probabilistic Zone Model Simulations to Investigate the Deterministic Assumptions of UK Residential Corridor Smoke Control Design

The modelling of common corridor smoke control systems in residential buildings is one of the most frequently undertaken performance-based assessments by fire engineers in the UK. However, there is limited understanding of how the deterministic assumptions provided in modelling guidance are derived, and to what extent these are representative of a range of possible outcomes. To place these assumptions into context, the Monte Carlo method is applied using the zone modelling software B-RISK for an exemplar residential arrangement. Distribution functions are adopted to inform inputs for fire parameters, sprinkler performance, and occupant behavioural characteristics. An output distribution for the corridor smoke clearance time is determined and compared to the clearance time of an equivalent set of deterministic simulations applying the assumptions of modelling guidance. The probabilistic study indicates that modelling guidance assumptions typically result in a scenario severity greater than the 99th percentile of possible outcomes. The work also considers the sensitivity of individual input parameters, ranking these based on their impact. These sensitivity analyses highlight the importance of occupant behavioural assumptions around the pre-evacuation time and door open time, and the significance of fire parameters including the elevation of the fuel bed, soot yield, and fire growth rate. Sprinkler parameters are shown to have a lesser impact on the corridor clearance time. The work therefore provides practitioners with an indication of which parameters are worth considering in greater detail when assessing scenario sensitivity.

Effect of void positioning on the detonation sensitivity of a heterogeneous energetic material

Although it is well-established that voids profoundly influence the initiation and reaction behaviors of heterogeneous energetic materials such as polymer-bonded explosives (PBX) and propellants, there has been little study of how void location in different constituents in the microstructures of such materials affect the macroscale behavior. Here, we use three-dimensional (3D) mesoscale simulations to study how void placement within the reactive grains vs the polymer binder influences the shock-to-detonation transition in a polymer-bonded explosive. The material studied here has a microstructure comprised of 75% PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) grains and 25% hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene polymer binder by volume. Porosities up to 10% in the form of spherical voids distributed in both the grains and polymer are considered. An Arrhenius reactive burn relation is used to model the chemical kinetics of the PETN grains under shock loading, thereby resolving the heterogeneous detonation behavior of the PBX. The influence of void location on the shock initiation sensitivity of the material is quantitatively ranked by comparing the predicted run distance to detonation (RDD) for each sample. The analysis includes inherent quantification of uncertainties arising from the stochastic variations in the microstructure morphologies and void distributions by using statistically equivalent microstructure sample sets, leading to probabilistic formulations for the RDD as a function of shock pressure. The calculations reveal that the location of voids in the composite microstructure significantly affects the RDD. Specifically, voids exclusively within the grains cause the PBX to be more sensitive (having shorter RDD) than voids in the polymer binder. Unique probabilistic relationships are derived to map the probability of observing RDD for each void location material case, allowing for prediction of initiation behavior anywhere in the shock pressure–RDD space. These findings agree with trends reported in the literature.

Clearing-based multimodal multi-objective evolutionary optimization with layer-to-layer strategy

Equivalent Pareto sets and local Pareto sets in decision space are involved in multimodal multi-objective optimization problems (MMOPs). While popular multimodal multi-objective evolutionary algorithms (MMEAs) devote greater attention to locating equivalent Pareto sets in decision space, resulting in the fact that local Pareto sets are overlooked. To tackle this issue, a clearing-based evolutionary algorithm with layer-to-layer evolution strategy (CEA-LES) is therefore proposed in this paper. A clearing-based niching technique is used in CEA-LES to remove inferior local Pareto optimal solutions, in which the clearing radius dynamically changes with the number of nearest neighbors of each individual. To develop equivalent global Pareto sets and local Pareto sets, a layer-to-layer evolutionary strategy is proposed based on Pareto ranking. Each layer performs mutation selection and reproduction operations with the aid of its closest neighbor layer to produce offspring. Particularly, the whole evolutionary operation is divided into two stages, and the first stage is to select parents using the roulette method and the second stage is using the tournament method. An environmental selection strategy is suggested to maintain diverse solutions and balance the distribution of solutions. The proposed algorithm is performed on CEC 2020 MMOPs benchmark with local Pareto set and Polygon-based MMOPs and is compared with some state-of-the-art MMEAs. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm obtains superior performance in comparison to its competing algorithms, and is capable of locating equivalent global Pareto sets and local Pareto sets, simultaneously.

Propofol-an alternative to sevoflurane for laryngeal mask airway insertion in children

Supraglottic devices like laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is used in children for anesthesia as it induces least hemodynamic stress response. We have carried out this trial to measure the potency of induction agents like propofol with sevoflurane for conditions of LMA placement in pediatric surgery. 60 children were included in our study and were split into two groups. Children in group S were induced with sevoflurane 8vol%. Children in group P were induced with propofol at 3 mg/kg IV. Proper size of LMA was inserted. Induction time, insertion time, LMA placement conditions and hemodynamic abnormalities were assessed. Induction time was shorter with group P contrary to S group. (p&lt;0&gt;0.05) There was no remarkable difference in various LMA insertion conditions and LMA insertion score in both groups. Hemodynamic changes were comparable in group S and P. Propofol and sevoflurane revealed equivalent and suitable LMA placement settings. So propofol may be a good substitute to sevoflurane for placement of LMA in children in a recourse limited setting. Keywords: Sevoflurane, Propofol, Laryngeal mask airway, Children.

Exact Time Evolution of Genuine Multipartite Correlations for N-Qubit Systems in a Common Thermal Reservoir

We investigate the dynamical evolution of genuine multipartite correlations for N-qubits in a common reservoir considering a non-dissipative qubits-reservoir model. We derive an exact expression for the time-evolved density matrix by modeling the reservoir as a set of infinite harmonic oscillators with a bilinear form of interaction Hamiltonian. Interestingly, we find that the choice of two-level systems corresponding to an initially correlated multipartite state plays a significant role in potential robustness against environmental decoherence. In particular, the generalized W-class Werner state shows robustness against the decoherence for an equivalent set of qubits, whereas a certain generalized GHZ-class Werner state shows robustness for inequivalent sets of qubits. It is shown that the genuine multipartite concurrence (GMC), a measure of multipartite entanglement of an initially correlated multipartite state, experiences an irreversible decay of correlations in the presence of a thermal reservoir. For the GHZ-class Werner state, the region of mixing parameters for which there exists GMC, shrinks with time and with increase in the temperature of the thermal reservoir. Furthermore, we study the dynamical evolution of the relative entropy of coherence and von-Neumann entropy for the W-class Werner state.

Unique stiffness-deformability features of dendrimeric silica reinforced HDPE nanocomposites obtained by an innovative route

A set of dendrimeric silica (DS) reinforced polyethylene-based nanocomposites is prepared using a novel and straightforward in-situ catalyst supporting procedure by means of “ in-situ ” polymerization technique, labeled DS-SA. These materials are characterized with regard to molar masses, filler dispersion, thermal stability, crystalline characteristics, thermal properties and mechanical response and then compared with an equivalent set of samples prepared using a more common method, named DS-MAO, as well as a non-reinforced HDPE reference. The mechanical performance of all these materials is discussed based on the crystalline features and molar masses of the polymeric component together with the dispersion of the DS nanofiller. The results of this study confirm the potential of the DS-SA approach as an innovative and promising technique, with resulting materials achieving superior filler dispersion and significantly higher mechanical performance compared to their DS-MAO analogues at high filler loadings, while retaining the limit stretching ability of HDPE. • Polyethylene nanocomposites reinforced with dendrimeric silica particles are prepared. • An innovative approach inspired by an in-situ catalyst supporting concept is applied. • Dendrimer like silica particles are used as catalyst support and (nano)filler. • Crystallinity and filler dispersion are dependent on synthetic protocol used. • Hybrids reveal a superior mechanical response with excellent stiffness/deformability balance.

Contextuality and Dichotomizations of Random Variables

The Contextuality-by-Default approach to determining and measuring the (non)contextuality of a system of random variables requires that every random variable in the system be represented by an equivalent set of dichotomous random variables. In this paper we present general principles that justify the use of dichotomizations and determine their choice. The main idea in choosing dichotomizations is that if the set of possible values of a random variable is endowed with a pre-topology (V-space), then the allowable dichotomizations split the space of possible values into two linked subsets ("linkednes" being a weak form of pre-topological connectedness). We primarily focus on two types of random variables most often encountered in practice: categorical and real-valued ones (including continuous random variables, greatly underrepresented in the contextuality literature). A categorical variable (one with a finite number of unordered values) is represented by all of its possible dichotomizations. If the values of a random variable are real numbers, then they are dichotomized by intervals above and below a variable cut point.

High-flow nasal cannula therapy, factors affecting effective inspired oxygen fraction: an experimental adult bench model

Oxygenation through High Flow Delivery Systems (HFO) is described as capable of delivering accurate FiO2. Meanwhile, peak inspiratory flow dot{V}_{{text{I}}} ) of patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure can reach up to 120 L/min, largely exceeding HFO flow. Currently, very few data on the reliability of HFO devices at these high dot{V}_{{text{I}}} are available. We sought to evaluate factors affecting oxygenation while using HFO systems at high dot{V}_{{text{I}}} in a bench study. Spontaneous breathing was generated with a mechanical test lung connected to a mechanical ventilator Servo-i®, set to volume control mode. Gas flow from a HFO device was delivered to the test lung. The influence on effective inspired oxygen fraction of three parameters (FiO2 0.6, 0.8, and 1, dot{V}_{{text{I}}} from 28 to 98.1 L/min, and HFO Gas Flows from 40 to 60 L/min) were analyzed and are reported. The present bench study demonstrates that during HFO treatment, measured FiO2 in the lung does not equal set FiO2 on the device. The substance of this variation (ΔFiO2) is tightly correlated to dot{V}_{{text{I}}} (Pearson’s coefficient of 0.94, p-value < 0.001). Additionally, set FiO2 and Flow at HFO device appear to significatively affect ΔFiO2 as well (p-values < 0.001, adjusted to dot{V}_{{text{I}}} ). The result of multivariate linear regression indicates predictors (dot{V}_{{text{I}}} , Flow and set FiO2) to explain 92% of the variance of delta FiO2 through K-Fold Cross Validation. Moreover, adjunction of a dead space in the breathing circuit significantly decreased ΔFiO2 (p < 0.01). The present bench study did expose a weakness of HFO devices in reliability of delivering accurate FIO2 at high dot{V}_{{text{I}}} as well as, to a lesser extent, at dot{V}_{{text{I}}} below equivalent set HFO Flows. Moreover, set HFO flow and set FIO2 did influence the variability of effective inspired oxygen fraction. The adjunction of a dead space in the experimental set-up significantly amended this variability and should thus be further studied in order to improve success rate of HFO therapy.

Weighted Indicator-Based Evolutionary Algorithm for Multimodal Multiobjective Optimization

Multimodal multiobjective problems (MMOPs) arise frequently in the real world, in which multiple Pareto-optimal solution (PS) sets correspond to the same point on the Pareto front. Traditional multiobjective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs) show poor performance in solving MMOPs due to a lack of diversity maintenance in the decision space. Thus, recently, many multimodal MOEAs (MMEAs) have been proposed. However, for most existing MMEAs, the convergence performance in the objective space does not meet expectations. In addition, many of them cannot always obtain all equivalent Pareto solution sets. To address these issues, this study proposes an MMEA based on a weighted indicator, termed MMEA-WI. The algorithm integrates the diversity information of solutions in the decision space into an objective space performance indicator to maintain the diversity in the decision space and introduces a convergence archive to ensure a more effective approximation of the Pareto-optimal front (PF). These strategies can readily be applied to other indicator-based MOEAs. The experimental results show that MMEA-WI outperforms some state-of-the-art MMEAs on the chosen benchmark problems in terms of the inverted generational distance (IGD) and IGD in the decision space (IGDX) metrics.

Constraints on near-source saturation models for avoiding over-saturation of response spectral ordinates in RVT-based stochastic ground-motion simulations

Inversions of empirical data and ground-motion models to find Fourier spectral parameters can result in parameter combinations that produce over-saturation of short-period response spectral ordinates. While some evidence for over-saturation in empirical data exists, most ground-motion modellers do not permit this scaling within their models. Host-to-target adjustments that are made to published ground-motion models for use in site-specific seismic hazard analyses frequently require the identification of an equivalent set of Fourier spectral parameters. In this context, when inverting response spectral models that do not exhibit over-saturation effects, it is desirable to impose constraints upon the Fourier parameters to match the scaling of the host-region model. The key parameters that determine whether over-saturation arises are the geometric spreading rate (γ) and the exponential rate within near-source saturation models (hβ). The article presents the derivation of simple nonlinear constraints that can be imposed to prevent over-saturation when undertaking Fourier spectral inversions.

Electrical Characterization of Germanium Nanowires Using a Symmetric Hall Bar Configuration: Size and Shape Dependence.

The fabrication of individual nanowire-based devices and their comprehensive electrical characterization remains a major challenge. Here, we present a symmetric Hall bar configuration for highly p-type germanium nanowires (GeNWs), fabricated by a top-down approach using electron beam lithography and inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching. The configuration allows two equivalent measurement sets to check the homogeneity of GeNWs in terms of resistivity and the Hall coefficient. The highest Hall mobility and carrier concentration of GeNWs at 5 K were in the order of 100 and , respectively. With a decreasing nanowire width, the resistivity increases and the carrier concentration decreases, which is attributed to carrier scattering in the region near the surface. By comparing the measured data with simulations, one can conclude the existence of a depletion region, which decreases the effective cross-section of GeNWs. Moreover, the resistivity of thin GeNWs is strongly influenced by the cross-sectional shape.