Sentinel-2 Multispectral Imagery Research Articles

Characterizing Dust and Biomass Burning Events from Sentinel-2 Imagery

The detection and evaluation of biomass burning and dust events are critical for understanding their impact on air quality, climate, and human health, particularly in the Mediterranean region. This research pioneers an innovative methodology that uses Sentinel-2 multispectral (MS) imagery to meticulously pinpoint and analyze long-transport dust outbreaks and biomass burning phenomena, originating both locally and transported from remote areas. We developed the dust/biomass burning (DBB) composite normalized differential index, a tool that identifies clear, dusty, and biomass burning scenarios in the selected region. The DBB index jointly employs specific Sentinel-2 bands: B2-B3-B4 for visible light analysis, and B11 and B12 for short-wave infrared (SWIR), exploiting the specificity of each wavelength to assess the presence of different aerosols. A key feature of the DBB index is its normalization by the surface reflectance of the scene, which ensures independence from the underlying texture, such as streets and buildings, for urban areas. The differentiation involves the comparison of the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance values from aerosol events with those from clear-sky reference images, thereby constituting a sort of calibration. The index is tailored for urban settings, where Sentinel-2 imagery provides a decametric spatial resolution and revisit time of 5 days. The average values of DBB achieve a 96% match with the coarse-mode aerosol optical depths (AOD), measured by a local station of the AERONET network of sun-photometers. In future studies, the map of DBB could be integrated with that achieved from Sentinel-3 images, which offer similar spectral bands, albeit with much less fine spatial resolution, yet benefit from daily coverage.

Effect of the One-to-Many Relationship between the Depth and Spectral Profile on Shallow Water Depth Inversion Based on Sentinel-2 Data

In shallow water, Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery has only four visible bands and limited quantization levels, which easily leads to the occurrence of the same spectral profile but different depth (SSPBDD) phenomenon, resulting in a one-to-many relationship between water depth and spectral profile. Investigating the impact of this relationship on water depth inversion models is the main objective of this paper. The Stumpf model and three machine learning models (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Mixture Density Network) are employed, and the performance of these models is analysed based on the spatial distribution of the training dataset and the input information composition of these models. The results show that the root mean square errors (RMSEs) of the depth inversion of Random Forest and Support Vector Machine are significantly affected by the spatial distribution of the training dataset, while minimal effects are observed for the Stumpf model and the Mixture Density Network model. The SSPBDD phenomenon is widespread in Sentinel-2 images at all depths, particularly between 5 m and 15 m, with most of the depth maximum difference of the SSPBDD pixels ranging from 0 to 5 m. The SSPBDDs phenomenon can significantly reduce the inversion accuracy of any model. The number and the depth maximum difference of the SSPBDDs pixels are the main influencing factors. However, by increasing the visible spectral information and the spatial neighbourhood information in the input layer of machine learning models, the inversion accuracy and stability of the models can be improved to a certain extent. Among the models, the Mixture Density Network achieves the best inversion accuracy and stability.

Remote Sensing-Based Monitoring of Cotton Growth and Its Response to Meteorological Factors

Cotton is an important economic crop and strategic resource. Monitoring its growth and analysing its response to meteorological factors are crucial for field management and yield estimation. This study selects the primary cotton-producing regions in northern Xinjiang as the study area. Firstly, using the Google Earth Engine cloud platform, the Cotton Mapping Index (CMI) was utilised to extract cotton planting areas from 2019 to 2023. Secondly, Sentinel-2A data were used to calculate the NDVI of cotton during the growing season and analyse its variation characteristics. Finally, correlation, lag, and partial correlation analyses were conducted between cotton NDVI and meteorological factors, including effective accumulated temperature, wind speed, precipitation, and solar shortwave radiation, to explore the response relationship. The results indicate the following: (1) The optimal classification threshold of CMI in the study area was determined to be 0.74, which was applied to extract cotton planting areas over the years. The overall classification accuracy achieved was 84.85%. The R2 value for the cotton area extracted by CMI compared to the cotton planting area in the statistical yearbook data is 0.98, with an average relative error of 16.84%. CMI’s classification use effectively distinguishes cotton from other major crops, such as wheat and corn, in the study area. Compared with different classification methods, CMI is more convenient and efficient for extracting cotton planting areas, contributing significantly to yield estimation and management. (2) We found that from 2019 to 2023, some fields were planted with cotton yearly. In order to prevent land degradation, a crop rotation system should be implemented, in which cotton rotates with other crops to reduce the rate of soil nutrient loss and achieve sustainable agricultural development. (3) NDVI can effectively monitor the spatiotemporal changes and regional variations in cotton growth. Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery possesses high spatial and temporal resolution, enabling effective monitoring of cotton growth, provision of cotton growth data for field managers, and application in cotton production management. Additionally, cotton yield estimation can be achieved by comparing the overall growth of cotton across different years. (4) Cotton NDVI exhibits a strong correlation with effective accumulated temperature and solar radiation, with the majority passing the significance test, suggesting a significant promotion effect on cotton growth by accumulated temperature and solar radiation. In cotton cultivation management, attention should be directed toward monitoring changes in accumulated temperature and solar radiation. Moreover, NDVI changes in response to solar radiation exhibit a certain lag. The correlation between NDVI and precipitation is low, likely attributed to local cotton cultivation primarily relying on drip irrigation. Cotton NDVI is negatively correlated with wind speed. Cotton planting should consider weather changes and take corresponding preventive management measures. The research results have significant reference value for monitoring cotton growth, disaster prevention, and sustainable agricultural development.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PRISMA HYPERSPECTRAL AND SENTINEL-2 MULTISPECTRAL IMAGES FOR CHLOROPHYLL-A AND TURBIDITY MAPPING OF TAAL LAKE

Abstract. Freshwater bodies like Taal Lake play a pivotal role in providing essential resources like fresh drinking water and in supporting local livelihoods. This study aimed to examine the environmental conditions of Taal Lake by quantifying chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and turbidity levels with Water Colour Simulator (WASI) and water quality indices, specifically with Sentinel-2 and PRISMA imagery. The results from the satellite image-derived data revealed discernible variations in chlorophyll-a and turbidity concentrations across different regions of Taal Lake. Higher chlorophyll-a was consistently observed in the western regions (1.3–5.9 μg/L for Sentinel-2; 1.4–5.4 μg/L for PRISMA), while lower concentrations were found in the south (1.7–3.4 μg/L for Sentinel-2; 1.9–3.3 μg/L for PRISMA). Meanwhile, turbidity values were higher in the eastern and northeastern parts (0.15–0.59 mg/L for Sentinel-2; 0.13–0.51 mg/L for PRISMA). Water quality indices (NDTI & NDCI) also supported these findings. The findings of this comparative analysis between PRISMA hyperspectral and Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery demonstrate the potential of both satellite systems in providing valuable insights into the spatial distribution of water quality parameters in Taal Lake. Nonetheless, discrepancies observed in the scatter plots and inversion failures in PRISMA underscore the need for further research and refinement in utilizing PRISMA data with the WASI model. This study highlights the significance of freshwater bodies and the importance of monitoring their health for the well-being of communities and the environment.

Detecting and quantifying zero tillage technology adoption in Indian smallholder systems using Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery

Zero tillage (ZT), an important component of Conservation Agriculture, has enormous potential to curb emissions from residue burning, increase soil organic carbon and water retention, reduce land preparation costs and increase the long-term productivity and profitability of the farming system. Despite the promise of ZT, little is known about how widely it has been adopted at regional scales in smallholder systems, where management is heterogeneous. Identifying ZT diffusion patterns across space and time along with other popular tillage technologies, such as conventional tillage (CT) and shallow tillage (ST), helps to target and disseminate the most effective technologies and estimate their climate change mitigation potential. Acknowledging the complexities involved in distinguishing ZT from CT and ST in smallholder fields, this study utilized an innovative two-step change detection method leveraging early-season Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery. We developed and applied our model in the Indian state of Punjab over three years (2020–2022). Our method outperformed traditional binary classification models, achieving 81 % accuracy. The analysis indicated that areas under different tillage types changed over time across Punjab. Specifically, from 2020 to 2021, we found a 33 % and 4 % decrease in ZT and CT, respectively. However, a 29 % increase is observed in CT adoption. On the other hand, from 2021 to 2022, the adoption rates for ZT and CT increased by 18 % and 2 %, respectively, while ST adoption decreased by 12 %. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential use of early season Sentinel-2 imagery to map the adoption of tillage practices in smallholder systems. Our approach can provide large-scale information on technology uptake, aiding policies to implement carbon markets and the scaling up of sustainable agricultural practices in India.

New approach for satellite DEM accuracy enhancement by combing machine learning, fuzzy majority voting, and weighted interpolation techniques

The digital elevation model (DEM) is crucial in many global and regional scientific studies in civilian and military applications. The aim of this research is to develop and test a new DEM approach for correcting the various errors in the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model. Firstly, the DEMs with the feature attributes from Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery are generated. Secondly, SRTM DEM with one band and attributes of a sentinel-2 image with eight bands are used as input data in supervised max-like hood, an artificial neural network (ANN), and support vector machine (SVM) classification models. Thirdly, ANN, supervised max-like hood, and SVM classification models, which have various properties, are fused by fuzzy majority voting (probability fusion). Finally, the fused probability is assigned for each pixel of the image, which has 12 fixed ground control points (GCPs), which is considered new input data for the inverse probability weighted interpolation (IPWI) approach to create the corrected SRTM elevations. The results were contrasted with a reference DEM (RD) created by image matching with Worldview-1 stereo satellite images, which had a 1-m vertical accuracy. The results of this study demonstrated that the RMSE of the original SRTM DEM was 5.95. On the other hand, the RMSE of the estimated elevations by the IPWI approach has been improved to 1.98 compared with that of the MLR method (3.01). The study shows a series of significant improvements in the SRTM when assessed with the reference DEM, with an RMSE reduction of (66.72%) when compared to the widely utilized multiple linear regression (MLR) method. It can be concluded that the elevation error of the original SRTM DEM is clearly reduced by the suggested approach.

Soil Salinity Estimation by 3D Spectral Space Optimization and Deep Soil Investigation in the Songnen Plain, Northeast China

Saline–alkaline soil is a severe threat to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but it can also be a precious land resource if properly utilized according to its properties. This research takes the Songnen Plain as the study area. The aim is to figure out the saline–alkaline status and mechanisms for its scientific utilization. Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery is used, and a 3D spectral space optimization method is proposed according to the restrictive relationships among the surface soil salinity index (SSSI), vegetation index (VI), and surface soil wetness index (SSWI) to construct a surface soil salinization–alkalization index (SSSAI) for estimation of the surface soil salinity (SSS). It is testified that SSS can be precisely estimated using the SSSAI (R2 = 0.74) with field verification of 50 surface salinized soil samples. Surface water and groundwater investigations, as well as deep soil exploration, indicate that the salt ions come from groundwater, and alkalinization is a primary problem in the deep soils. Fine-textured clay soils act as interrupted aquifers to prevent salt ions from penetrating and diluting downward with water, which is the cause of the salinization–alkalization problem in the study area. Finally, a sustainable solution for the saline–alkaline land resource is proposed according to the deep soil properties.

Digital hemispherical photographs and Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery for mapping leaf area index at regional scale over a tropical deciduous forest

Digital hemispherical photographs and Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery for mapping leaf area index at regional scale over a tropical deciduous forest

Estimation of the Biogeochemical and Physical Properties of Lakes Based on Remote Sensing and Artificial Intelligence Applications

Lakes play a crucial role in the global biogeochemical cycles through the transport, storage, and transformation of different biogeochemical compounds. Their regulatory service appears to be disproportionately important relative to their small areal extent, necessitating continuous monitoring. This study leverages the potential of optical remote sensing sensors, specifically Sentinel-2 Multispectral Imagery (MSI), to monitor and predict water quality parameters in lakes. Optically active parameters, such as chlorophyll a (CHL), total suspended matter (TSM), and colored dissolved matter (CDOM), can be directly detected using optical remote sensing sensors. However, the challenge lies in detecting non-optically active substances, which lack direct spectral characteristics. The capabilities of artificial intelligence applications can be used in the identification of optically non-active compounds from remote sensing data. This study aims to employ a machine learning approach (combining the Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Extreme Gradient Boost (XGBoost)) and in situ and Sentinel-2 Multispectral Imagery data to construct inversion models for 16 physical and biogeochemical water quality parameters including CHL, CDOM, TSM, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), phosphate (PO4), sulphate, ammonium nitrogen, 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the biomasses of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria, pH, dissolved oxygen (O2), water temperature (WT) and transparency (SD). GA_XGBoost exhibited strong predictive capabilities and it was able to accurately predict 10 biogeochemical and 2 physical water quality parameters. Additionally, this study provides a practical demonstration of the developed inversion models, illustrating their applicability in estimating various water quality parameters simultaneously across multiple lakes on five different dates. The study highlights the need for ongoing research and refinement of machine learning methodologies in environmental monitoring, particularly in remote sensing applications for water quality assessment. Results emphasize the need for broader temporal scopes, longer-term datasets, and enhanced model selection strategies to improve the robustness and generalizability of these models. In general, the outcomes of this study provide the basis for a better understanding of the role of lakes in the biogeochemical cycle and will allow the formulation of reliable recommendations for various applications used in the studies of ecology, water quality, the climate, and the carbon cycle.

State-wide forest canopy height and aboveground biomass map for New York with 10 m resolution, integrating GEDI, Sentinel-1, and Sentinel-2 data

Investigating the quantity of forest aboveground biomass (AGB) is crucial for understanding the role forests play in the global carbon cycle. The canopy height model (CHM) is a critical component in estimating AGB, as it provides a three-dimensional representation of the tree canopy. Traditional CHM estimation methods are time-consuming, labor-intensive, and expensive, particularly at large-scales. Remote sensing is a cost-effective and efficient alternative approach, providing valuable information over large areas in a timely manner. The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) onboard the International Space Station is a space-based light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system designed to collect information on vertical structures of vegetation. One major problem with the collection of GEDI data is that it provides limited information over discrete ground samples, also known as footprints, and thus do not provide wall-to-wall gridded height products. The objective of this study was twofold: a) to integrate the GEDI LiDAR footprint heights with Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery to generate a 10 m wall-to-wall CHM map of New York State (NYS), USA for the year 2019 and b) to improve our previously generated AGB map (both accuracy and resolution) of NYS for the year 2019 by fusing Sentinel-2 multispectral, Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and the produced CHM. To generate the 10 m CHM map, the GEDI footprints height measurements were extrapolated using Sentinel-2 imagery and a random forest model. The CHM that was produced was assessed by using GEDI footprints that were not part of the training phase and were therefore independent (extrapolated). Comparing our 10 m CHM with the available global 30 m CHM map provided by Potapov et al. (2021) over NYS shows significant improvement not only in terms of spatial resolution, but also in terms of accuracy. The root mean square error (RMSE) of our 10 m CHM is 4.4 m while this value is 7.49 m for the 30 m CHM over NYS. Similarly, the R2 value for the 10 m CHM map is 0.74, while that of the 30 m CHM is 0.46. Finally, the integration of produced 10 m CHM, Sentinel-1, and Sentinel-2 datasets were utilized to create a 10 m AGB map of NYS with the RMSE of 39.49 Mg/ha, and R2 of 0.65. The results demonstrate the potential of integrating GEDI, Sentinel-1, and Sentinel-2 data for providing a valuable tool for large-scale mapping of forest canopy structure and biomass, which can help to inform forest management and carbon accounting efforts.

Novel oil spill indices for sentinel-2 imagery: A case study of natural seepage in Qaruh Island, Kuwait

Oil spills are a paramount and immediate challenge affecting marine ecosystems globally. Effective and timely monitoring tools, such as oil detection indices, offer a swift means to track oil spill spread across vast oceanic expanses. Moreover, these indices enhance data clarity, making it more conducive for machine learning and deep learning algorithms.This study leverages the natural seepage occurring around Qaruh Island, Kuwait as a unique context for the spectral analysis of oil spills using Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery due to repeated occurrences in the same region. This research evaluated 859 single band and 455 multichannel combinations to identify the most effective combinations in oil-water separability, employing the Jeffries-Matusita (JM) distance measure as a key metric. Bands 1, 2, 3, 8A, 11, and 12 consistently featured among the top-performing indices combinations B1−B11B1+B11;B1+B2B3+B11;B1+B2B3+B12;B1+B2B3+B8A affirming the significant effect of oil spills on visible, Near-Infrared (NIR), and Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) bands. Notably, the indices developed in this study outperformed those from prior research in terms of suitability to unsupervised classification algorithms. A significant conclusion of this study is that incorporating a higher number of bands in the analysis did not correlate with an increase in JM values, suggesting that the selection of specific, informative bands is more critical than the volume of input data. These findings underscore the indispensable role of Sentinel-2 imagery in environmental investigations and highlight the potential for focused, efficient analysis using strategic band combinations for effective oil spill detection.•This study identified optimized Sentinel-2 band combinations for oil-water separability, benefiting from naturally occurring spills around Qaruh Island.•The proposed indices outperformed the previous indices for oil spill visualization and clustering.•The new indices highlighted the critical role of specific band selection over the volume of input data for effective oil spill detection.

Segmentation and Connectivity Reconstruction of Urban Rivers from Sentinel-2 Multi-Spectral Imagery by the WaterSCNet Deep Learning Model

Quick and automatic detection of the distribution and connectivity of urban rivers and their changes from satellite imagery is of great importance for urban flood control, river management, and ecological conservation. By improving the E-UNet model, this study proposed a cascaded river segmentation and connectivity reconstruction deep learning network model (WaterSCNet) to segment urban rivers from Sentinel-2 multi-spectral imagery and simultaneously reconstruct their connectivity obscured by road and bridge crossings from the segmentation results. The experimental results indicated that the WaterSCNet model could achieve better river segmentation and connectivity reconstruction results compared to the E-UNet, U-Net, SegNet, and HRNet models. Compared with the classic U-Net model, the MCC, F1, Kappa, and Recall evaluation metrics of the river segmentation results of the WaterSCNet model were improved by 3.24%, 3.10%, 3.36%, and 3.93%, respectively, and the evaluation metrics of the connectivity reconstruction results were improved by 4.25%, 4.11%, 4.37%, and 4.83%, respectively. The variance of the evaluation metrics of the five independent experiments indicated that the WaterSCNet model also had the best robustness compared to the other four models.

A Deep Learning Data Fusion Model Using Sentinel-1/2, SoilGrids, SMAP, and GLDAS for Soil Moisture Retrieval

Abstract We develop a deep learning–based convolutional-regression model that estimates the volumetric soil moisture content in the top ∼5 cm of soil. Input predictors include Sentinel-1 (active radar) and Sentinel-2 (multispectral imagery), as well as geophysical variables from SoilGrids and modeled soil moisture fields from SMAP and GLDAS. The model was trained and evaluated on data from ∼1000 in situ sensors globally over the period 2015–21 and obtained an average per-sensor correlation of 0.707 and ubRMSE of 0.055 m3 m−3, and it can be used to produce a soil moisture map at a nominal 320-m resolution. These results are benchmarked against 14 other soil moisture evaluation research works at different locations, and an ablation study was used to identify important predictors. Significance Statement Soil moisture is a key variable in various agriculture and water management systems. Accurate and high-resolution estimates of soil moisture have multiple downstream benefits such as reduced water wastage by better understanding and managing the consumption of water, utilizing smarter irrigation methods and effective canal water management. We develop a deep learning–based model that estimates the volumetric soil moisture content in the top ∼5 cm of soil at a nominal 320-m resolution. Our results demonstrate that machine learning is a useful tool for fusing different modalities with ease, while producing high-resolution models that are not location specific. Future work could explore the possibility of using temporal input sources to further improve model performance.

Comparing the predictive ability of Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery and a proximal hyperspectral sensor for the estimation of pasture nutritive characteristics in an intensive rotational grazing system

Using remote sensing to estimate the nutritive characteristics of pasture in livestock systems is a rapidly developing area that has the potential to improve pasture management and utilisation and in turn improve livestock productivity. The Copernicus Sentinel-2 paired satellites have shown promise in predicting pasture nutritive characteristics and have a pixel size small enough to be able to identify intra-paddock nutrient variation in rotational dairy grazing systems where paddock sizes are small. This study sought to develop nutrient prediction models using a dataset of nine Sentinel-2A and -2B satellite images, by linking imagery to perennial ryegrass dairy pasture samples cut within known pixels of the images in the days directly after each cloud-free overpass. Just before destructive pasture sampling, a handheld, proximal, hyperspectral sensor was used to gather spectral signatures (400–2500 nm) from areas to be sampled. Pasture samples (n = 200) were analysed using wet chemistry techniques for seven nutritive characteristics. The dry matter concentration of the samples was also measured, creating eight variates to be modelled in total. The Sentinel-2 data from within the selected pixels was extracted and used to create input features for Random Forest prediction models. Input features included the raw multispectral bands, common vegetation indices, and independent variables ‘season’ and ‘month’. Predictive models were also developed from the hyperspectral sensor data using Partial Least Squares Regression. For both modelling types, variable selection was used to reduce model inputs to only those sensitive to each nutrient. Results comparing the final models in an independent validation test showed similar predictive performance of the Sentinel-2 satellite and the proximal hyperspectral sensor for all variates of interest, shown by mean absolute errors that were not significantly different. In each case, the dry matter concentration was the best predicted variable (Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient (LCCC) > 0.90) with excellent potential to be quantified by Sentinel-2 satellites. Crude protein, metabolisable energy, neutral detergent fibre, non-fibre carbohydrate, and water-soluble carbohydrate concentrations were also predicted with good to moderate accuracy by both sensors (LCCC between 0.50 and 0.80). These models would be sufficiently accurate for making qualitative predictions (e.g., grouping into high to low categories). Ash and acid detergent fibre concentrations were poorly predicted (LCCC < 0.50) and these models would not be recommended for further use. It was concluded that multispectral data from Sentinel-2 has great potential to estimate pasture nutrient concentrations for intensively grazed pastures such as those used in dairy systems in temperate regions.

Mapping of land use change using Sentinel-2 Multi Spectral Instrument (MSI) imagery and Google Earth Engine mapping platform at Dramaga, Bogor Regency, Indonesia

Dramaga District is an urban buffer area in Jabodetabek Metropolitan Megacity and has various types of land use. The land crisis due to population growth in urban areas has implications for the surrounding buffer areas, so land use changes often occur. Mapping of land use change in the period 2017 to 2021 carried out area is a response to the impact of urban activities and the need for fast and accurate. The mapping platform, Google Earth Engine based on cloud computing, was involved in this research. The land use classification process from Sentinel-2 MultiSpectral (MSI) imagery uses the Random Forest (RF) machine learning algorithm classification method and is assisted by several types of indexes such as vegetation index (NDVI, SLAVI, ARVI, SAVI, and EVI), water index (NDWI, MNDWI, and LSWI), and building index (IBI and NDBI). This study shows that there are changes in several types of land use such as forests, agriculture, built-up areas, plantations, and water bodies. The classification of land use accuracy level reaches 86.00% (Overall Accuracy) and 0.82 (Kappa Statistics) so that this spatial information can be used as consideration for policy makers to determine the allocation and utilization of spatial planning.

Detection of the Spatial Variability of Soil Salinity East of the Bitter Lake of the Suez Canal, Egypt, as a Basis for Management Zones Using Sentinel-2 Multispectral Imagery

ABSTRACT Soil salinity is one of the more serious problems that cause soil degradation, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions. In agricultural lands, it threatens plant growth and productivity, which requires specific management decisions for various inputs, such as fertilizers. Accurate prediction and mapping of soil salinity have become possible through remote sensing techniques. The focus of this research is to derive soil salinity from spectral indices measured from different bands of sentinel-2 satellite in order to delineate management zones (MZs). Four spectral salinity indices were used for the purpose of this study, using blue, green, red, and NIR bands in different combinations. Exponential regression best describes the relationship between salinity indices and soil electrical conductivity (EC) through groundtruthing. The results indicate that salinity indices 2 () and 4 () (SI2 and SI4) outperformed the other indices and could describe 70% and 71% of the variability in soil EC with prediction models of: and , respectively. The generated models were validated by normalized root mean square error and the d coefficient of agreement. The results of the best-fit models were 16.5% and 0.86 for SI2 and 16.7% and 0.84 for SI4, respectively. The box-and-whiskers diagram proposed that the field can be divided into four soil EC-dependent groups, which are considered MZs to support a variety of management decisions. This study shows that through sentinel-2 multispectral imagery, the spatial variability of soil salinity can be mapped and used as a basis for MZs within the studied region.

Vegetation recovery drivers at short-term after fire are plant community-dependent in mediterranean burned landscapes

Large, severe wildfires can cause unpredictable changes in Mediterranean plant communities that undermine ecosystem resilience. Understanding the geophysical drivers shaping vegetation dynamics after fire is vital to provide integrated knowledge into plant community recovery feedbacks in the context of global change. We investigated the role of fire severity and a comprehensive set of geophysical drivers in the post-fire vegetation recovery of Mediterranean landscapes. We used physical-based remote sensing techniques to estimate vegetation recovery and examined whether this recovery is plant-community dependent in the short-term (one year) after the fire. The fractional vegetation cover (FCOVER) recovery was selected as a resilience indicator for Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) forests, Quercus ilex L. (holm oak) woodlands, shrublands dominated by Cytisus oromediterraneus Rivas Mart. et al. (black broom) and grasslands. To obtain the pre- and post-fire FCOVER, we used the Gaussian processes regression algorithm trained with the PROSAIL-D radiative transfer model. The algorithm was parameterized to account for the variability of biophysical conditions in the plant communities considered and was applied to the Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery. Validation of remotely-sensed FCOVER with field data in burned and control plots was successful (R2 = 0.84 and RMSE = 10.83%), without significant under or overestimation. We selected 31 variables pertaining to fire severity, climate, post-fire soil moisture, pre-fire soil condition, and landscape configuration as putative predictors of FCOVER recovery percentage (FCOVER%rec), calculated as the ratio of post-fire to pre-fire FCOVER. Random Forest regression (RFR) was used to disentangle the influences of fire severity and geophysical drivers on community-specific FCOVER%rec. Fire severity and post-fire surface soil moisture variables were relevant predictors in RFR models in all plant communities. However, their importance was largely community-dependent. In grasslands, surface soil moisture in the early summer season one year after fire was the major variable explaining variability in FCOVER%rec. In holm oak woodlands, the contribution of fire severity and surface soil moisture was balanced. Conversely, fire severity largely outweighed other variables in driving FCOVER%rec in black broom shrublands and Scots pine forests. Pre-fire climate, soil condition and landscape configuration variables were not meaningful predictors in general. Our findings offer novel insights into the processes that underlie resilience in fire-prone plant communities located in the western Mediterranean Basin. This establishes a baseline to help prioritize adaptive management strategies for the most vulnerable areas in the region.

Integrating Remote Sensing, Proximal Sensing, and Probabilistic Modeling to Support Agricultural Project Planning and Decision-Making for Waterlogged Fields

Waterlogging in agriculture poses severe threats to soil properties, crop yields, and farm profitability. Remote sensing data coupled with drainage systems offer solutions to monitor and manage waterlogging in agricultural systems. However, implementing agricultural projects such as drainage is associated with high uncertainty and risk, with substantial negative impacts on farm profitability if not well planned. Cost–benefit analyses can help allocate resources more effectively; however, data scarcity, high uncertainty, and risks in the agricultural sector make it difficult to use traditional approaches. Here, we combined a wide range of field and remote sensing data, unsupervised machine learning, and Bayesian probabilistic models to: (1) identify potential sites susceptible to waterlogging at the farm scale, and (2) test whether the installation of drainage systems would yield a positive benefit for the farmer. Using the K-means clustering algorithm on water and vegetation indices derived from Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery, we were able to detect potential waterlogging sites in the investigated field (elbow point = 2, silhouette coefficient = 0.46). Using a combination of the Bayesian statistical model and the A/B test, we show that the installation of a drainage system can increase farm profitability by 1.7 times per year compared to the existing farm management. The posterior effect size associated with yield, cropping area, and time (year) was 0.5, 1.5, and 1.9, respectively. Altogether, our results emphasize the importance of data-driven decision-making for agriculture project planning and resource management in the wake of smart agriculture for food security and adaptation to climate change.

Salinity Properties Retrieval from Sentinel-2 Satellite Data and Machine Learning Algorithms

The accurate monitoring of soil salinization plays a key role in the ecological security and sustainable agricultural development of semiarid regions. The objective of this study was to achieve the best estimation of electrical conductivity variables from salt-affected soils in a south Mediterranean region using Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery. In order to realize this goal, a test was carried out using electrical conductivity (EC) data collected in central Tunisia. Soil electrical conductivity and leaf electrical conductivity were measured in an olive orchard over two growing seasons and under three irrigation treatments. Firstly, selected spectral salinity, chlorophyll, water, and vegetation indices were tested over the experimental area to estimate both soil and leaf EC using Sentinel-2 imagery on the Google Earth Engine platform. Subsequently, estimation models of soil and leaf EC were calibrated by employing machine learning (ML) techniques using 12 spectral bands of Sentinel-2 images. The prediction accuracy of the EC estimation was assessed by using k-fold cross-validation and computing statistical metrics. The results of the study revealed that machine learning algorithms, together with multispectral data, could advance the mapping and monitoring of soil and leaf electrical conductivity.

Modelling of Acid Mine Drainage in Open Pit Lakes Using Sentinel-2 Time-Series: A Case Study from Lusatia, Germany

Strong acid mine drainage (AMD) processes in the flooded, formerly open pits in the Lusatia area present an enormous environmental challenge for the rehabilitation of the post-mining landscape. Extensive and costly monitoring is required for optimal AMD management and remediation planning and control. Because of the large size of the area and the dimension of the problem, the regular sampling can only provide limited point data, which needs to be extrapolated to the entire area. Consequently, the search for effective approaches for extrapolating the point data to the area of all water bodies is essential for rehabilitation success monitoring and for understanding the dependencies between AMD and environmental factors such as land use, weather conditions, geology, and hydrogeology. The main aim of this study was to investigate the suitability of Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery and artificial neural networks (ANNs) for the quantitative mapping of acid mine drainage (AMD) constituents, such as dissolved iron, pH value, and sulfate in large water bodies, for an area of approximately 7220 km2 (the area of the pit lakes is about 185 km2). Correlations between different chemical water parameters were also investigated. An extensive water monitoring dataset was used to train artificial neural networks for the identification of dependencies between the multispectral remote sensing data and the water quality ground measurements. Respective relationships have been identified, especially for dissolved iron and pH. These trained ANNs have been used to produce water quality maps with high spatial (10 × 10 m) and temporal (any cloud-free period) resolution, which show the wide variability of water quality in the different parts of the mining region. Concrete sources of AMD can be identified using the water quality maps of single lakes, and the success of sanitation measures such as liming was visualized. The approach opens many doors for the optimization of both the monitoring program and sanitation technology.