Language Sentences Research Articles

Kind of Prosody and Its Structure in Pashto Language

By looking at the Pashto language structure, Pashto poem has a sylabotonic system and this prosody is also accepted for the Pashto poem. Pashto poems have its special features starting form syllables to measures, alongside the number of the Pashto syllable, the quality (syllable stress) of the syllable is also being considered in the Pashto syllable, and by looking at both the number of syllable and stress, and the Measure of the Pashto language is being determined. According to the number of syllable, Pashto words have extensive syllables compared to other languages, and most of the words have up to six syllables. The stress of the Pashto language is also spacious and could come at every part of the sentence (beginning, middle, and end) and can change its position while bringing in words. Despite the words stress, the sentence in Pashto language also have stress, by changing pressure in the sentences, it can also affect/change the meaning of the sentences. Base on the syllable numbers, two kind of foots (3 syllables and 4 syllables) can be created in Pashto language, and does not have foots that to be more than 4 syllables or less than 3 syllables. At a result of combining the 3 syllables and 4 syllables foots, and increasing and decreasing the number of syllables, Pashto poems have been made in (196) different measures so far.

ЕВОЛЮЦІЯ ІСПАНСЬКОЇ ВІДНОСНОЇ КОНСТРУКЦІЇ: НАБУТТЯ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИХ РИС

Complex attributive sentences in the Spanish language of the medieval period are characterized by a vague expression of the degree of syntactic subordination. During the XII-XVI centuries there is a process of constant enrichment of meanings and forms of complex attributive sentences. The final formation of the structural organization of a complex attributive sentence ended in the XVII century, in the period of unification and formation of the national Spanish language. Starting from the Old Spanish period, the externally formal homogeneity of models of a complex attributive sentence is disturbed by deep internal complications of semantic connections between the main and subordinate parts. Thus, in the Middle Spanish period, a complex attributive sentence gradually reformatted its structural organization by strengthening the contact position of the nominal center of subordination with the conjunctions and strengthening bilateral links between predicative components, which further contributed to the normalization of the position of the subordinate part. On the other hand, there is an intensive mutual replacement of some conjunctions with others. In the Old Spanish period, the conjunctions bigan to lose their uncoordinated lexical correlation between the correlative word and the supporting noun in the main part. This trend contributed to the consolidation of the structural organization of a complex attributive sentence, which was realized in the early Spanish period.

Speech-to-Text Conversion in Indonesian Language Using a Deep Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory Algorithm

Nowadays, speech is used also for communication between humans and computers, which requires conversion from speech to text. Nevertheless, few studies have been performed on speech-to-text conversion in Indonesian language, and most studies on speech-to-text conversion were limited to the conversion of speech datasets with incomplete sentences. In this study, speech-to-text conversion of complete sentences in Indonesian language is performed using the deep bidirectional long short-term memory (LSTM) algorithm. Spectrograms and Mel frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) were utilized as features of a total of 5000 speech data spoken by ten subjects (five males and five females). The results showed that the deep bidirectional LSTM algorithm successfully converted speech to text in Indonesian. The accuracy achieved by the MFCC features was higher than that achieved with the spectrograms; the MFCC obtained the best accuracy with a word error rate value of 0.2745% while the spectrograms were 2.0784%. Thus, MFCCs are more suitable than spectrograms as feature for speech-to-text conversion in Indonesian. The results of this study will help in the implementation of communication tools in Indonesian and other languages.

Fallibilism and Consequence

Alex Worsnip argues in favor of what he describes as a particularly robust version of fallibilism: subjects can sometimes know things that are, for them, possibly false (in the epistemic sense of ‘possible’). My aim in this paper is to show that Worsnip’s argument is inconclusive for a surprising reason: the existence of possibly false knowledge turns on how we ought to model entailment or consequence relations among sentences in natural language. Since it is an open question how we ought to think about consequence in natural language, it is an open question whether there is possibly false knowledge. I close with some reflections on the relation between possibly false knowledge and fallibilism. I argue that there is no straightforward way to use linguistic data about natural language epistemic modals to either verify or refute the fallibilist thesis.

Бипредикативные конструкции с зависимой предикативной единицей места в хакасском языке

The syntax of a complex sentence is of great interest to researchers of various languages. Despite active research, there are many issues to be clarified. Our attention is focused on the syntax of the Khakass language. Previous investigations were devoted to asyndetic compound sentences, concessive and causal constructions in the Khakass language in comparison with the Russian language. Still, given that only a small section of the scientific grammar of the Khakass language covers the topic under discussion, such studies are of great relevance. The current study deals with complex sentences in the Khakas language, namely the bipredicative constructions of place that have not received proper coverage yet. The purpose was to identify and describe the structures concerned. The research revealed that Khakass bipredicative constructions of place are represented by two structural types. The first category includes the constructions in which the relationship between the dependent predicative unit and the main predicative unit is usually realized analytically by means of pronominal adverbs and correlative words, namely deictic locative adverbs. The second type involves determinative constructions, which are dependent predicative units in bipredicative constructions of place. The main predicative unit is connected with the dependent predicative unit by the words in spatial cases (dative, locative, directive, and ablative), and in the dependent predicative unit, they are represented by pronominal adverbs. Furthermore, the dependent predicative unit completely identifies the main predicative unit in space.

To the question of classification of sentences in Korean language

To the question of classification of sentences in Korean language

Development of Technology for Summarization of Kazakh Text

This paper presents the solution to the problem of summarizing Kazakh texts. The problem of Kazakh text summarization is considered as a sequence of two tasks: extracting the most important sentences of the text and simplifying the received sentences. The task of extracting the most important sentences of the text is solved using the TF-IDF method and the task of simplifying sentences is solved using the neural network technology “Seq2Seq”. Problem of using NMT method for simplification of Kazakh was in absence of Kazakh dataset for training. To solve this problem in this work propose use transfer learning method. The use of transfer learning made it possible to use a ready-made model that was trained on a parallel corpus of Simple English Wikipedia and not create a simplification corpus in Kazakh from scratch. For this, a transfer learning technology for simplifying sentences of the Kazakh language has been developed, based on training a neural model for simplifying sentences in the English language. Main scientific contribution of this work is transfer learning technology for the simplification of Kazakh sentences using the parallel corpus of the English language simplification.

Visualizing Schemes and Logics among Sentences in Paragraph

Authors have been developing algorithms to extract sentences including logical relation of “implication” from specification documents, and have generated executable test program for validating software modules with model checking techniques for years, so as to decrease manufacturing costs in times of system testing. The sentences including the relation “implication” are the key for test case design, because these are regarded as statements of reasonings in the system specifications. The reasoning requires premises, constraints and design rationales, to reinforce reasoning process. The premises, constraints and design rationales are utilized to define test parameters and their range of value in the context of test case design. The sentences corresponding to premises, constraints and design rationales are very likely to be deployed in the same paragraph, where the sentence involving “implication” is included.We tried to visualize logical relations among sentences in a paragraph by focusing the key sentence including the relation “implication (→)” to help test engineers grasp logical scheme of the paragraph at a glance with natural language processing technique. The algorithms and tools for formalizing sentences in natural language and visualizing logical relations among them were developed in the study and applied to visualizing logical scheme for 747 summaries in the technical papers for the validation.

A2R2: Robust Unsupervised Neural Machine Translation With Adversarial Attack and Regularization on Representations

Unsupervised neural machine translation (UNMT) has recently achieved significant progress without requirement on any parallel data. The models for UNMT are typically the sequence-to-sequence architecture with an encoder to map sentences in different languages to a shared latent space, and a decoder to generate their corresponding translation. Denoising autoencoding and back-translation are called in every iteration for the models to learn the relationship of sentence pairs in languages or between languages. However, sentences generated by the noise model of autoencoding or the reverse model of back-translation are normally different from those written by humans, which may cause inference bias. In this paper, we propose a regularization method for back-translation to explicitly draw representations of sentence pairs closer in the shared space. To enhance the robustness to sentences after autoencoding or back-translation, the adversarial attack on representations is applied. Experiments on unsupervised English↔French, English↔German and English↔Romanian benchmarks show that our approach outperforms the cross-lingual language model (XLM) baseline by 0.4~1.8 BLEU scores. Additionally, the boost on noisy test sets in most translation directions is over 5 BLEU scores.

Структурная классификация аналитических скреп хантыйского языка

The structural classification of analytic connectors of a complex sentence of the Khanty language follows the principles developed by M. I. Cheremisina and T. A. Kolosova in the monograph “Essays on the theory of complex sentences” (1987). Single and non-single connectors can be distinguished depending on whether the complex sentence connector belongs to one predicative unit or to both ones, with single connectors belonging entirely to one of the predicative units and non-single ones consisting of two or more parts placed in different predicative units. Also, the classification takes into account the morphological nature: in the Khanty language, the analytical connectors of a complex sentence are formed based on particles or pronouns. Further, consideration is given to the number of components in the composition of a particular connector, with single-component and multicomponent (usually two-component) connectors being identified. The specificity of the Khanty language is that there are no conjunctions since synthetic and analytical-synthetic polypredicative constructions prevail. Particles and pronouns are used to connect the parts of a polypredicative construction. However, in the language of newspapers, the fund of analyt-ical connectors is actively replenished.

Optimized recurrent neural network based emotion recognition using speech for Assamese language

This paper deals with the design and development of a dataset for emotion recognition in Assamese language and its analysis using Machine Learning. This dataset comprises of spoken sentences in Assamese language which relates 7 different emotions of the speakers. It also focusses on the analysis of the dataset with Deep Learning architectures and classification algorithm like Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). In total these 7 emotions included calm/neutral, anger, sad, fear, disgust, happy and surprise. The performance of RNN is improved using Representation Learning where training of the model is done using the glottal flow signal to investigate the effect of speaker and phonetic invariant features on classification performance. The speech samples were experimented with different combinations of features and a variety of results were obtained for each of them. In this paper 2 experiments are performed to improve the performance of RNN training. The first one is the representation learning where the training is modelled on the glottal flow signal which is used to investigate the effect of the speaker and phonetic distinct features on the performance of the classification. The second is the transfer learning based RNN training which is done on the valence and activation that is adapted to a 7-category emotion classification. On the Assamese dataset the experimented approach results in a performance which is comparable and similar to the existing state of art systems for emotion recognition using speech.

КОНЦЕПЦИИ «РЕАЛЬНОСТИ» И «УТВЕРЖДЕНИЯ» В АНАЛИЗЕ МОДАЛЬНОГО ЧЕРЕДОВАНИЯ В ОТНОСИТЕЛЬНЫХ ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ ИСПАНСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

The article analyzes theoretical works that raise the problem of analyzing the use of the subjunctive mood in subordinate relatives in Spanish based on the concept of «reality». This topic is relevant and widely discussed among Spanish researchers. Earlier, the author has already attempted to study a different concept – the concept of «statement». This concept, based on the hidden semantics of the whole sentence, is applicable to the analysis of subordinate object sentences. The aim of the study is to determine the features of the subjunctive mood use in subordinate relative sentences in the Spanish language, based on the semantic features of the concepts of «statement» and «reality». This article attempts to implement the concept of «statement» in the analysis of subordinate relative clauses. The author concludes that this concept is not always applicable to the analysis of this type of subordinate clauses. However, we cannot completely exclude it from the analysis. The concept of «reality», which is in its own way a consequence of the concept of «statement», helps to explain the modal alternation in subordinate relative clauses. The subjunctive mood indicates the abstractness of the antecedent or the speaker's doubts about the existence of the antecedent in reality. The indicative mood, on the contrary, indicates the reality of the object or the speaker's belief in its existence. The materials of this study raise questions related to the application of concepts within other types of subordinate clauses and in other closely related languages (French).

LINGUODIDACTIC FOUNDATIONS OF FORMING THE LINGUISTIC PERSONALITY OF A FUTURE TEACHER OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL IN THE PROCESS OF THE SYNTAX OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE

In the article the theoretical study of the formation linguistic personality of the future teacher of the primary school in the process of teaching Ukrainian syntax and compound sentence of Ukrainian language; the essence of the notions linguistic personality of the future teacher of the primary school is determined and syntactical competence; elements of methodology are described formation linguistic personality of the future teacher of the primary school. The authors of scientific research see that the teaching of syntax is carried out using a text-centric approach, which is implemented through a developed system of exercises, in which texts illustrate the cultural heritage of the Ukrainian people, its traditions, features of national identity, etc. occupy a prominent place. The lingvodidactic conditions for the formation linguistic personality of the future teacher of the primary school in the process teaching syntax of compound sentence are determined, the result of the formation depends on the usage effective forms, methods, techniques, the criteria are determined. Emphasis is placed on the levels of language personality formation (verbal–grammatical, cognitive, pragmatic). The essence of the proposed technique is to create a system of exercises and tasks (analytical, reproductive, constructive productive and creative character), to realize the textocentric approach to the formation of syntactic skills in the process of mastering phrases, simple and complex sentences. It is noted that the verbal-grammatical criterion reflects the ability of the linguistic person to build structural and justifiable syntactic structures depending on their semantic load, to correctly identify sentences, determine their stylistic functions; сognitive-realized as a skill of linguistic personality to generate, understand and perceive speech expressions depending on their formal syntactic and semantic structure, reproducing them with a holistic language picture of the world against socio-cultural processes, taking into account their own national identity; Pragmatic - indicates the skill of the linguistic person communicative-justifiable to use syntactic structures in accordance with a specific speech situation, depending on the communicative intention and purpose of communication.

The issue of propositive content and pragmatic meaning in dialogic questions and answers

The article is devoted to the study of pragmatic meaning in dialogic questions and answers, in which the analysis of why and what type of dialogic units is involved. It is known that interrogative sentences in Uzbek language are divided into simple (definite) interrogative sentences and rhetorical interrogative sentences.The rhetorical question does not have to be answered in sentences, and at the same time the answer must be found without going beyond the limits of sentence proposition.

Natural mapping between voice commands and APIs

Abstract After a voice control system transforms audio input into a natural language sentence, its main purpose is to map this sentence to a specific action in the API (application programming interface) that should be performed. This mapping is usually specified after the API is already designed. In this paper, we show how an API can be designed with voice control in mind, which makes this mapping natural. The classes, methods, and parameters in the source code are named and typed according to the terms expected in the natural language commands. When this is insufficient, annotations (attribute-oriented programming) are used to define synonyms, string-to-object maps, or other properties. We also describe the mapping process and present a preliminary implementation called VCMapper. In its evaluation on a third-party dataset, it was successfully used to map all the sentences, while a large portion of the mapping was performed using only naming and typing conventions.

Multi-Modal Interaction Graph Convolutional Network for Temporal Language Localization in Videos.

This paper focuses on tackling the problem of temporal language localization in videos, which aims to identify the start and end points of a moment described by a natural language sentence in an untrimmed video. However, it is non-trivial since it requires not only the comprehensive understanding of the video and sentence query, but also the accurate semantic correspondence capture between them. Existing efforts are mainly centered on exploring the sequential relation among video clips and query words to reason the video and sentence query, neglecting the other intra-modal relations (e.g., semantic similarity among video clips and syntactic dependency among the query words). Towards this end, in this work, we propose a Multi-modal Interaction Graph Convolutional Network (MIGCN), which jointly explores the complex intra-modal relations and inter-modal interactions residing in the video and sentence query to facilitate the understanding and semantic correspondence capture of the video and sentence query. In addition, we devise an adaptive context-aware localization method, where the context information is taken into the candidate moments and the multi-scale fully connected layers are designed to rank and adjust the boundary of the generated coarse candidate moments with different lengths. Extensive experiments on Charades-STA and ActivityNet datasets demonstrate the promising performance and superior efficiency of our model.

Towards Indian Sign Language Sentence Recognition using INSIGNVID: Indian Sign Language Video Dataset

Sign language, a language used by Deaf community, is a fully visual language with its own grammar. The Deaf people find it very difficult to express their feelings to the other people, since the other people lack the knowledge of the sign language used by the Deaf community. Due to the differences in vocabulary and grammar of the sign languages, complete adoption of methods used for other international sign languages is not possible for Indian Sign Language (ISL) recognition. It is difficult to handle continuous sign language sentence recognition and translation into text as no large video dataset for ISL sentences is available. INSIGNVID - the first Indian Sign Language video dataset has been proposed and with this dataset as input, a novel approach is presented that converts video of ISL sentence in appropriate English sentence using transfer learning. The proposed approach gives promising results on our dataset with MobilNetV2 as pretrained model.

Specifies of construction industry terminology and methods of analysis of the natural language sentences similarity by using isomorphism of their structures

This article discusses methods of automatic translation by analogy. Each dictionary entry in the online dictionary contains a certain number of examples highlighting the use of this lexeme in different contexts. The purpose of this study is to find an example from an online dictionary that most fully conveys the meaning of a word in a particular context. Based on the fact that natural language sentences can be represented as graphs, the author considers several methods based on set theory, graph theory and linear algebra to compare sentences in order to find the closest example in meaning. In addition to purely formal comparison methods based on syntax, the author presents methods for analyzing sentences based on the semantics of their components. The balance between syntactic and semantic structure when comparing sentences gives the best result for finding the correct meaning of the predicate, which ensures an adequate transfer of the idea of the sentence during translation.

COMPREHENSIVE FOLLOWING SENTENCES

This article is devoted to one of the problematic issues of the syntaxof a complex sentence of the Uzbek language - complex structural subordinatesentences. It outlines the stylistic and semantic properties of complex structuralsubordinate sentences.

Socio-Linguistic Study of Meaning Extension in Communication among Male Youths in Northern Nigeria

The paper examines meaning extension in communication among male youths in some northern states such as Katsina, Kano, Kaduna and Zamfara. The variables under study comprise of words, phrases and sentences in English and Hausa languages. The paper also examines the expressions’ literal and contextual meanings and how they are used among the educated and uneducated (western education) youths. The data gathered by the researchers through observation are twenty five (25) samples, and were further presented and analysed using descriptive method. The findings revealed that the youths use the expressions in a conversation to make it socially decorated and show fancy in conversation among them.