Semi-arid Areas Of Tanzania Research Articles

Usage of Agroecological Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices among Sorghum and Maize Smallholder Farmers in Semi-Arid Areas in Tanzania

Climate change variability and its impact on agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa pose a significant challenge to food security. In Tanzania's semi-arid regions, there is growing concern regarding the use of agroecological Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices by smallholder farmers that adhere to agroecological principles. This study aimed to investigate the use of agroecological CSA practices among smallholder farmers in Tanzania's semi-arid regions, specifically in Dodoma and Tabora regions. In addition, this study sought to identify the key factors influencing the use of these practices to enhance food security, income, and climate resilience. Data were collected from 299 households in Dodoma and Tabora using various methods including questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Binary logistic regression was used to analyse factors influencing the usage of agroecological climate-smart agriculture practices. The findings revealed that most households in the study area use agroecological CSA practices. These practices include cereal-legume intercropping, mixed cropping, crop residue retention, crop rotation, and improved seed variety. Water harvesting, terraces, and cover crops were not used by many households. Several factors positively influenced the use of agroecological CSA. They include assistance from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), training in CSA practices, drought perception, access to credit, distance to market, membership in an organisation, education level of the household head, and total household income. To promote the use of agroecological CSA practices, both governments and NGOs should prioritise training programs. Moreover, providing frequent extension services and facilitating easier access to credit for farmers can further support the widespread use of these practices. In doing so, local communities can adapt better to the challenges of climate change, ensuring improved food security and climate resilience in the region

Exploring the Adoption and Impact of Conservation Agriculture among Smallholder Farmers in Semi-Arid Areas: Evidence from Chamwino District, Tanzania

The adoption of Conservation Agriculture (CA) technologies by smallholder farmers is expected to affect agricultural productivity and ultimately improve food security and farm incomes. However, there is still limited empirical evidence on the adoption and effects of CA technologies among smallholder farmers in the semi-arid areas of Tanzania. This study was designed to assess the adoption of CA by smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas. The study used a cross-sectional survey design in four villages in Chamwino districts where CA projects are promoted. A random sample of 260 households was interviewed in this study, including 134 CA adopters and 126 non-CA adopters. Data were collected and analyzed using KoBo and SPSS statistics respectively. Descriptive statistics were used to examine extension approaches applied and analyze the extent of CA adoptions. A logistic regression model explored the determinants influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt CA. In addition, two independent samples t-tests were used to calculate the effect of CA adoption on crop yields and farm incomes. The results show that robust extension services led to a better quality of CA practices on CA farms. Gender, access to extension services, access to agricultural inputs, participation in farmer groups, and access to credit for agriculture significantly influence the adoption of CA. CA adopters achieved better average crop yields and higher farm income per unit area than those who did not adopt CA. Thus, the study recommends that the government and other development actors devote more resources to agricultural extension services and mechanization to support and increase the scaling up of CA technologies. There is also a need to establish and strengthen monitoring and evaluation systems to ensure coherence, impact and sustainability of CF programs in semi-arid areas of Tanzania.

A Relative Importance Index Analysis of Drivers of Land Degradation in Agro-pastoral Systems in Mbulu District, Tanzania

Growing concern over land degradation impacts everyone via food security, rising food costs, climate change, environmental threats, and loss of biodiversity. Land degradation harms food production, livelihoods, and the ecosystem. This study aimed at examining the drivers of land degradation in semiarid Agro-pastoral systems in semiarid areas of Tanzania by classifying land conservation practices adopted by the community in efforts to ensure land restoration within the selected district using a relative importance index approach. The study selected the Mbulu district as a study area and sampled 178 agro-pastoralists. A semi-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The data collected were analysed using a Relative Importance Index to classify the most important criteria based on the participants’ responses. Results show that the severity of the factors causing land degradation ranges from 66.97% to 70.90%: Cutting trees for building purposes (70.9%), overgrazing (70.79%), a lack of a land use plan (69.21%), charcoal burning (66.97%), agricultural practices including poor farming methods (66.97%), and land ownership and tenure system (57.98%). The study identified that 90% of agro-pastoralists do not use any land conservation practices, while less than 10% use the practices. The study concludes that the five dimensions identified have a considerable effect on land degradation. However, nearly 90% of sampled households did not use land conservation methods. Thus, the study recommended that stakeholders should increase efforts to reduce the severity of land degradation by engaging the local communities with frequent training and extension services and involving the community in protecting and managing their environment. Policymakers and conservationists should develop programs that will engage the community and put sustainable land management practices into action. Moreover, community development experts should be involved in the whole process of sustainable land management since they know how to engage the community through principles of community development.

The Potentials of Beekeeping Activities in Enhancing Local Livelihoods and Climate Change Adaptation in Semi-arid Areas of Tanzania

Beekeeping also referred to as apiculture activities in semi-arid areas of Tanzania has been playing a significant role in enhancing rural livelihoods and climate change adaptation. Beekeeping groups have been established to mobilize resources and ensure high quality bee products and reliable markets. However, information on the enhancement of rural livelihoods and climate change adaptation in arid areas is scarce. Thus, this study was undertaken to assess the potential of bee keeping activities and climate change adaptation issues in semi-arid areas. A stratified sampling design was employed to select 90 respondents from beekeeping groups. Data were collected using questionnaires. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, Gross Margin Return on Investment (GMROI), Capacity Performance Index (CPI) and Livelihood Index (LI). The study revealed that there is a high return to capital invested due to capacity performance of the smallholder beekeeper’s groups. The groups’ capacity resulted in strengthened climate change adaptation strategies and enhanced livelihoods. The study concludes that the beekeeping activities are perceived to have high return to capital invested. This also facilitates adaptation to climate change in the area through environmental conservation and local livelihoods support. Therefore, government and other stakeholders should continue capacitating beekeeping groups.

Agro-pastoralist Resilience: Emerging Challenges towards Innovated Pathways of Climate Change Effects in Semi-arid areas of Kiteto and Kilindi Districts, Tanzania

Climate change and its variability threaten food security globally, making life uncertain, especially among agro-pastoral communities living in fragile semi-arid areas. This trend has necessitated the exploration of the potential designed and developed pathways and the emerging challenges which reduce the adaptive capacity of agro-pastoralists. This study investigates innovative pathways and challenges facing agro-pastoral communities in adapting to climate change and variability effects on crops and livestock production in semiarid areas of Kiteto and Kilindi Districts. A mixed-method research approach under a correlation case study design was employed. Primary data were collected using a household survey which sampled 362 households, Focus Group Discussion (n=6), In-depth interviews (key informants) and field visits. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were used in analysing and presenting the findings. The study results indicate that agro-pastoral communities have observed a decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperature trends that were linked to reduced livestock, cereals and pulses crop production thus affecting the agro- pastoral community’s food security status. The study identified innovative pathways as a response to reduced livestock, cereal and pulse crops production which includes growing drought-tolerant crops, practising intercropping, livestock seasonal mobility, traditional grazing management system through by-laws, pastures rotational uses and traditional water reservoirs (Mboutu). Furthermore, the study identified several challenges to overcoming declining livestock production and crop yields, which include inadequate financial capital (91%), droughts (85.4%), unpredicted weather patterns, (74.7%), emergency of new AJASSS Volume 4, Issue No. 1, 2022 page 20 livestock diseases (50.3%), a lack of reliable weather information (44.2%), low livestock prices(40%), insufficient and delayed delivery of agricultural equipment (37%). All these challenges reduced the resilience capacity of agropastoralists. To ensure the sustainability of fragile dryland communities, this study recommends purposeful institutional intervention plans and increased income diversification as well as more capacity-building activities for increased awareness of climate change adaptation practices in semiarid areas of Tanzania which will increase agro-pastoralists resilience.

Community's Vulnerability to Drought-Driven Water Scarcity and Food Insecurity in Central and Northern Semi-arid Areas of Tanzania

Droughts are one of the most serious threats to water availability, food security, and local livelihoods in the semi-arid areas of Tanzania. This paper adapted the participatory vulnerability assessment tools (causal effects, social mapping–resource mapping–social services–mobility–seasonality) to analyze the effects of prolonged droughts on semi-arid farming systems, community's vulnerability to drought effects, and the adopted coping strategies in six villages of Chamwino and Mwanga districts. Crop failure, loss of pasture, and drying of water sources were the common and major negative effects of droughts. Their consequences included food shortage and insecurity, water scarcity, and loss of livestock. The vulnerability to these effects was found to be driven by the social condition of households, resource ownership, and type of income sources. Those with good social conditions, relatively resourceful and deriving incomes from crop-livestock integration or non-agriculture, were less vulnerable and better placed to cope with the effects of droughts. Investments that build the productive resource base of a household and improve access to domestic and livestock water will contribute to long-term adaptive and drought-resilient systems in semi-arid areas of Tanzania.

Factors affecting the adoption and non adoption of biogas technology in semi-arid areas of Tanzania

Tanzanian Government through its policies in response to energy crisis has been promoting among others, biogas as an alternative source of energy. However, the adoption of biogas technology has been reported to be low or not to the expected levels. This study examines the factors that affect the adoption and Non adoption of Biogas technology as an alternative energy source for rural population in Semi arid areas. Kongwa and Chamwino Districts in Dodoma region were used as case study. Data collection methods employed included interviews, focus group discussions and observation. The findings of the study revealed that there is little or no access to the factors hoped to facilitate adoption of biogas technology which implies weakness in promotion efforts. Little involvement of the Government has underestimated the importance of the biogas technology contributing to low adoption. Other factors include, poor performance of biogas plants associated to technical problems, having a negative implication in adoption process, high installation costs unaffordable to the majority of rural population, unreliable feed stocks and water shortage problems. It is recommended that Government should take intentional efforts to fully involve in promoting biogas technology and ensure the enabling environment for the adoption of the technology.

Physicochemical Properties, Fatty Acid Composition, and the Effect of Heating on the Reduction of Cyclopropenoid Fatty Acids on Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) Crude Seed Oil.

The baobab seed oil has been consumed by humans due to its medicinal and nutrient values for many years. However, the consumption of baobab seed oil has been perceived by different communities as a health risk caused by cyclopropenoid fatty acids (CPFAs), which are carcinogenic ingredients present in the oil. This study investigated the physicochemical properties and fatty acid profile of baobab crude seed oil collected from semiarid areas in Tanzania and determined the effects of heating on the reduction of CPFAs. The baobab seed crude oil was extracted by Soxhlet using n-hexane, and the fatty acid composition of the baobab seed crude oil was determined by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). Since CPFAs are resistant to lower temperatures, the effect of heating on the CPFA content of baobab crude seed oil was studied at 150°C, 200°C, and 250°C. The A. digitata crude seed oil was found to contain mainly twelve essential fatty acids and two different CPFAs. The most abundant fatty acids were palmitic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid in all the baobab population hotspots occurring in Tanzania. There was no significant difference in most physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition across the different semiarid areas in Tanzania. The major breakdown of CPFAs occurs at 200°C, and that would be the optimal temperature recommended for the refining process of the baobab crude oil. The study recommended refining of the baobab oil at higher temperatures ranging from 200 - 250°C as the best way of reducing CPFAs.

Demography of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) population in different land uses in the semi-arid areas of Tanzania

Baobab is a deciduous non-timber tree species that are facing severe threats from both anthropogenic and climatic pressures across its range states. This study assessed natural rates of recruitment and associated threats of baobabs within and across different land-use types in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. The study was based on a stratified random sampling design composed of the following land-use types: strictly protected areas, non-strictly protected areas, and unprotected areas. Rates of recruitment were measured from a total of 337 grids (representing 40% of semi-arid land) in three different land-use types in a plot measuring 1 km long and 50 m wide. Results show that juvenile, sub-adult and adult baobab populations varied significantly (p < 0.001) within and across land-use types with only 4.7% of surveyed plots having a few juveniles (about four stems per plot) across the study area. The density of adult, sub-adult and juvenile populations were 1.53 ± 0.105, 0.82 ± 0.149 and 0.33 ± 0.253 plants/ha respectively with strictly protected areas (national parks) supporting the most abundant (53%) of the adult trees. Furthermore, the results show inverse J-shaped and bell-shaped distribution in the strictly protected areas and unprotected areas, respectively. The densities of mature baobabs were found to be higher than juvenile baobabs in all three land-use types. The number of baobabs damaged was higher than undamaged in all land-use types. Our results suggest that anthropogenic threats are higher than biophysical factors in driving the species to mortality and population extirpation. Likely, baobab size and distribution across land-use types are mostly influenced by herbivory and fire that likely limit the establishment in most of these areas. Strategies promoting the recruitment and sustainable harvesting practices of baobab would perhaps be the best options to support the population persistence in different land uses in semi-arid areas. The study recommends more studies to understand the factors affecting germination and recruitment rates in order to predict future distributions in semi-arid environments. Also in defining and planning for different land-use system, baobab species should be taken into consideration and in particular in agroforestry farms can easily qualify as a tree crop. Promotion of active recruitment through planting especially in communal lands and protection from herbivory is required if we are to overcome the recruitment bottlenecks as influenced by increasing impacts of land use and climate change and overexploitation. The intentional growing of trees and shrubs in combination with crops cultivation and forage production is also recommended to smallholder farmers.

Home ranges, sex ratio and recruitment of the multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) in semi-arid areas in Tanzania

Abstract Investigation of home ranges, sex ratio and recruitment of the multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) in semi-arid areas of Tanzania was conducted in maize and fallow fields using the capture-mark-release (CMR) technique. The aim of this study was to generate useful data for the management of M. natalensis. The relative home range size of M. natalensis was significantly higher during the wet [544 m2 ± 25 standard error (SE)] than during the dry (447 m2 ± 18 SE) season, in males (521 m2 ± 23 SE) than in females (450 m2 ± 17 SE) and in adults (576 m2 ± 34 SE) than in juveniles (459 m2 ± 16 SE). However, there were no significant differences between habitats. Sex ratio was not significantly different (p = 0.44) between habitats. Recruitment was significantly higher (p = 0.000) in maize fields (mean = 0.43) than in fallow land (mean = 0.32) and differed significantly over time (p &lt; 0.0001) with the highest recruitment recorded from April to July and the lowest from October to December. Management strategies should focus on managing rodents inhabiting maize fields using methods that affect their recruitment in order to reduce the population increase of M. natalensis.

Application of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to forecast rodent population abundance in smallholder agro-ecosystems in semi-arid areas in Tanzania

Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the potential use of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from satellite-derived remote sensing data for monitoring rodent abundance in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. We hypothesized that NDVI could potentially complement rainfall in predicting rodent abundance spatially and temporally. NDVI were determined across habitats with different vegetation types in Isimani landscape, Iringa Region, in the southern highlands of Tanzania. Normalized differences in reflectance between the red (R) (0.636–0.673 mm) and near-infrared (NIR) (0.851–0.879 mm) channels of the electromagnetic spectrum from the Landsat 8 [Operational Land Imager (OLI)] sensor were obtained. Rodents were trapped in a total of 144 randomly selected grids each measuring 100 × 100 m2, for which the corresponding values of NDVI were recorded during the corresponding rodent trapping period. Raster analysis was performed by transformation to establish NDVI in study grids over the entire study area. The relationship between NDVI, rodent distribution and abundance both spatially and temporally during the start, mid and end of the dry and wet seasons was established. Linear regression model was used to evaluate the relationships between NDVI and rodent abundance across seasons. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) at p ≤ 0.05 was carried out to describe the degree of association between actual and NDVI-predicted rodent abundances. The results demonstrated a strong linear relationship between NDVI and actual rodent abundance within grids (R2 = 0.71). NDVI-predicted rodent abundance showed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.99) with estimated rodent abundance. These results support the hypothesis that NDVI has the potential for predicting rodent population abundance under smallholder farming agro-ecosystems. Hence, NDVI could be used to forecast rodent abundance within a reasonable short period of time when compared with sparse and not widely available rainfall data.

Soil type influences population dynamics and survival of the Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) in semi-arid areas in Tanzania

Rodent population dynamics and survival in semi-arid areas of Tanzania were investigated in fallow land and maize fields (land use) and two soil types (sandy loam and black clay). Capture-Mark-Release (CMR) methods with four 60 m × 60 m trapping grids, (two in maize and two in fallow mosaic fields) were used. Mastomys natalensis comprised >94% of the total captures, and the remaining six percent comprised 11 other small mammals species. The number of M. natalensis was higher in sandy loam (7.82) than in black clay (2.89) soils and higher in fallow land (40.25) than in maize fields (26.49). Highest rodent abundance was observed during the dry season (from June to August) of each year, while the lowest abundance was recorded during the wet seasons (February to April) in both habitats. A significantly different proportion of reproductively active female M. natalensis was observed in sandy loam than in black clay soils. It was observed that female M. natalensis are found to breed almost throughout the year. Survival of M. natalensis differed between dry and wet seasons and was lower in clay soils during the wet season compared to sandy soils. However, there were no significant effects with respect to interactions between soil type and land use, soil type and month, land use and month and soil type, land use and month. Management strategies should therefore, be aimed at emphasizing the importance of targeting March-May in order to interrupt reproduction and young rearing.

Assessing Rainfall and Temperature Changes in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania

This paper examines the variability of rainfall and temperature in Igunga and Kishapu Districts using time series data (1985 to 2016) from Tanzania Meteorological Agency. The regression analysis results show rainfall variability of R2 = 0.096 in Igunga and R2 = 0.186 in Kishapu which implies that about 0.96% and 1.86% of the changes in rainfall across the districts are associated with changes in weather variables. A considerable change of amount of rains was evident in Igunga than in Kishapu District. In both districts there was a change of months with the most rains. Generally rainfall showed a decreasing trend in both districts. The paper also examined temperature trends in the two districts; the findings showed an increasing trend throughout October in both districts. From this point of view, higher temperatures can increase evapo-transpiration that in turn can have an effect on moisture for the crops adversely affecting pasture productivity for livestock, and leading to a shortage of water for both crops and livestock. Annual rainfall variability trends, however, increased indicating that annual variability was somewhat a common feature in the study districts. So, districts efforts should be directed towards the support of crop and livestock adjustments in order to buffer impacts of rainfall and temperature variability during critical periods for growing of crops and pastures.

Relationships between seasonal changes in diet of Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) and its breeding patterns in semi-arid areas in Tanzania

The diet and breeding patterns of Mastomys natalensis in semi-arid areas of Isimani division, Iringa region, Tanzania were investigated in maize fields and fallow land. The aim was to investigate t...

Screening of sorghum genotypes for resistance to Striga hermonthica and S. asiatica and compatibility with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae

ABSTRACTIn the semi-arid areas of Tanzania, yield losses of sorghum [Sorghum biocolor (L.) Moench] due to Striga hermonthica (Sh) and S. asiatica (Sa) infestations are estimated to be 30–90%. The use of resistant sorghum varieties compatible with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae (FOS), a biocontrol agent of Striga, may supress the weed and enhance the crop productivity. The objective of this study was to screen and select farmer-preferred sorghum genotypes for Sh and Sa resistance and FOS compatibility for resistance breeding under Tanzanian conditions. Sixty sorghum genotypes were evaluated under screen house conditions using Sh- and Sa-infested field soils with controlled seed infestation, with or without inoculation of the sorghum seeds with FOS. Inoculation of sorghum seeds with FOS significantly enhanced sorghum growth and productivity, and supressed Sh and Sa growth and development. There were reductions of 1–4 Sh and Sa plants when sorghum seeds were inoculated with FOS. Overall, we selected 25 promising sorghum lines resistant to Sh and/or Sa, and with FOS compatibility. The selected sorghum lines are valuable genetic resources for the development of Striga management in sorghum through the integrated use of host resistance and FOS inoculation.

The Role of Social Networks as Survival Strategies in Agro-Pastoral Communities in Arid And Semi-Arid Lands in Tanzania

Agro-pastoral communities in semi-arid areas of Tanzania are among the most food insecure groups in the country. In the absence of precisely stipulated mitigation measures from the government the agro-pastoralists have, all across their history relied on social networks for their survival. This paper seeks to examine in detail the role of social networks as survival strategies in coping up with food insecurity among agro-pastoral communities in Arid and semi-arid areas of Tanzania. Based on data and information that was collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews in three villages of Sejeli, Mtumba and Makoja it is reported that social networks have been significant in sustaining livelihoods of vulnerable households. These traditional social networks are based on mutual trust and organized on consanguine and kinship ties and through these networks wealth and riches are shared by the agro-pastoral communities. The findings further reveal that these traditional social networks do better than the externally induced initiatives. It has also been revealed that, despite facing a myriad of challenges such as competition for labor, lack of entrepreneurial skills and negative impacts of commercialization of livelihoods on food security the traditional social networks are surviving albeit with hitches. It is recommended that policy interventions that seek to construct resilience of the vulnerable households need to consider traditional systems of social networking.

Farmers’ perceptions of sorghum production constraints and Striga control practices in semi-arid areas of Tanzania

ABSTRACTThe objectives of this study were to investigate constraints affecting sorghum production and farmers' approaches of Striga management in the semi-arid regions of Tanzania. Focus group discussions based on a semi-structured questionnaire and observations following transect walks were used for data collection. Only 35%, 15%, and 10% of the farmers from Igunga, Kishapu, and Meatu districts, respectively, reported growing newly released varieties. The major constraints affecting sorghum production in the study areas included Striga infestation, drought, storage pests, damage by birds, a lack of access to improved varieties, and a lack of access to production inputs, such as fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. Hand weeding, crop rotation, fallowing, intercropping, and organic manure application were the most common practices of farmers for reducing Striga infestations, but most farmers (79.7%) had little knowledge of the best recommended Striga management practices. About 65% of the farmers did not use fertilizers and herbicides for soil fertility improvement and weed management, respectively, creating favourable conditions for Striga infestation. A systematic breeding programme aiming at improving sorghum varieties for Striga resistance, including farmers' preferred traits, should be designed and implemented to increase the adoption of these new varieties by the farmers.

Challenges of Implementing Participatory Irrigation Management for Food Security in Semi-arid Areas of Tanzania

Participatory irrigation management (PIM) is theoretically assumed to reduce poverty significantly, but its practical experience and challenges are yet researched and documented in Tanzania. The study aimed at assessing challenges observed during implementation of PIM approach for food security in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. Data were collected through questionnaire, participatory rapid appraisal (PRA) tools, key informants interview, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), observation and literature review. Data collected from questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS. Data from other methods were analyzed using content analysis. The study revealed that PIM approach has contribution in improving food security at household level due to involvement of communities in water management activities and decision making, which enhanced availability of irrigation water and increased crop production. However, there were challenges observed during implementation of the approach, including the minimum participation of beneficiaries in decision making during planning and designing stages, which means that inadequate devolution of power among scheme owners, inadequate and lack of transparency on income expenditure in water utilization associations (WUAs), water conflict among WUAs members, conflict between farmers and livestock keepers and conflict between WUAs and village government leaders regarding training opportunities and status. The rules and regulation of WUAs were not legally recognized by the national courts and few farmers who planted trees around water sources. However, it was realized that some of the mentioned challenges were rectified by farmers themselves and facilitated by government officials. The study recommends that the identified challenges need to be rectified for farmers to realize more on the importance of PIM approach as it was realized in other Asian countries.

Climate Change, Adaptive Strategies and Rural Livelihoods in Semiarid Tanzania

Climate change is a global challenge to both sustainable livelihoods and economic development. In Tanzania as in most African countries, farming depends almost entirely on rainfall, a situation that makes agriculture and thus rural livelihoods especially in semiarid environments particularly vulnerable to climate change. This study analyses the impacts of climate change and variability on rural livelihoods with particular focus on agricultural production, food security and adaptive capacities in semiarid areas of Tanzania. The methods used in this study included focus group discussions, key informant interviews, household surveys and field observations. Results from the study indicate that communities understood climate change in terms of variability in rainfall patterns and amount, temperature patterns, wind, water availability, increased incidences of drought and decreased agricultural productivity. Communities in the study area acknowledged that while rainfall amounts have decreased over the last thirty years, temperatures have increased; an experience is also supported by meteorological data. Such changes were claimed to have reduced agricultural productivity particularly due to prolonged drought, inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall as well as unpredictable onset and ending of rains. Stressors such as crop diseases and pests, low soil fertility and inadequate extension services were also reported to contribute to the decline in agricultural productivity and re-occurrence of food insecurity. In response, communities have developed multiple adaptation strategies, including growing of drought tolerant and early maturing crop varieties, increasing wetlands cultivation, water harvesting for small-scale irrigation and livestock keeping. However, households with limited livelihood assets are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and food insecurity. The study argues that diversification of adaptive strategies, such as water harvesting for small-scale irrigation, integration of livestock and crop production are crucial to ensuring sustainable livelihood in a changing climate.

Vulnerability of People’s Livelihoods to Water Resources Availability in Semi Arid Areas of Tanzania

In semi-arid areas of Tanzania vulnerability context is depicted as the starting component for policy process analysis through the sustainable livelihood approach. Giving vulnerability a high prominence in this analysis allowed the research to consider all kinds of vulnerabilities as central issues to the ways in which livelihoods are shaped. Hence the Sustainable Livelihood framework was used in this research as the comprehensive framework for assessing the contributing factors to limited water resources availability to sustain people’s livelihoods. The study revealed that, changes in the quantity, timing, intensity and duration of rainfall as a result of climate change contributes to greater water stress and making people more vulnerable. Due to over-abstraction upstream of the Great Ruaha River, it implies that, people depending on the water resources downstream of the Great Ruaha River catchment are vulnerable. Their livelihoods are at risks as they don’t have water for irrigation and other economic activities. The study also revealed that, both vulnerability and livelihood strategies are derived through natural water availability which features droughts, climate change and the link between water availability, agricultural production, and outcomes.