Seljuk Era Research Articles

العلاقات العباسية البيزنطية في عصر السلاجقة

This study aims to highlight the Abbasid-Byzantine relations during the Seljuk era and to identify the early historical features of the political relations between the two countries. The study also aims to identify the origin and lineage of the Seljuks and determine the nature of the relationship between the Seljuks and the Byzantine state. In addition, it tackles the most important military battles between the two states and their most important results. In addition, to know the military power of the Seljuk state and how they prepare and arrange their military forces. The importance of this study comprises the political relations of the Seljuk state with the Byzantine state, the emergence of the Seljuks as a main military force that had a major role in changing the interior political situation of the Abbasid state and limited the political and military influence of the Byzantine state, This study relied on historical, descriptive, and analytical methods as well as a list of historical sources and references. The results demonstrate the important aspect of the exterior relations of the Seljuk state and the importance of Byzantine state power, which represented one of the major global states at that time. The study also clarifies the important aspects of the history of the two states. The results also show that the relation between the two states was not always belligerent and hostile, but rather peaceful and friendly sometimes. The most important recommendations include the interest in studying the foreign relations of the Seljuk state. Besides, the importance of studying the economic, commercial and social history of the Seljuk state to determine their role and the extent of their great civilizational contribution in the development of the history of the Islamic state.

COMPARISON OF ANATOLIAN AND PERSIAN CARAVANSERAIS IN THE SELJUK PERIOD

According to history, the caravanserais were situated along the Silk Road, which linked the East and West and played a significant role in cultural exchange and trade between cities. Caravanserais were constructed to provide facility services and shelter for travellers. The construction of caravanserais in Iran is data back to the Sassanid period. The design of caravanserais alongside the road during the Seljuk Empire was a policy of the Seljuk Empire to connect cities located within the empire’s borders. Hence, different caravanserais with various designs were constructed in both Anatolia and Iran. This study emphasizes caravanserais constructed during the Seljuk era in both regions.
 The aim of this paper is to compare the architectural characteristic of Persian and Anatolian caravanserais built during the Seljuk era. In this respect, six caravanserais with different typologies of the plan features from both regions were selected to compare. The selected caravanserais from Iran are Deyre Gachin, Robat-e Mahi, and Robat-e Sharaf whereas Evdir Han, Aksaray Sultan Han, and Alara Han are selected from Anatolia. 
 The comparison of these caravanserais includes several steps. In the first step, the characteristics of Seljuk caravanserais were defined. In the second step, the features of each caravanserai in terms of its construction or restoration date were explained. In the third step, the form and function of each caravanserai were discussed. In the last step, the similarities and differences between the caravanserais of Iran and Anatolia were identified. To conclude, according to our study, interior spaces and the function of caravanserais in both regions are largely similar, whereas the plan design and space organization are different.

Tomb towers and minarets: analysis of symmetries and geometries of Iranian geometrical ornaments of the Seljuq era. Pictorial requiem for the Kharraqan towers

Ornamental adornment of the Kharraqan tomb towers, the most outstanding funeral monuments of the Seljuk era in NW Iran, and those of four best-preserved Seljuq brick minarets in northern Iran, documents the artistic canon of the pre-glaze stage of Iranian Islamic architecture. Despite some later interruptions, these monuments and their plain-brick ornaments, as well as the ‘virtually interlaced’ brick ornaments, stand at the beginnings of a rich development that led to the Safavid architecture of Iran. Besides documentation and study of the geometric character of early Islamic art, which was based on limited technical resources, this study offers insight into symmetry concepts developed at this stage of art and architecture development. This is the last and most complete study of the Kharraqan towers performed before their overwhelming destruction in the 2002 earthquake.

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 3D MODELLING USING UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES MULTI-VIEW IMAGING

Abstract. Today, Architectural Heritage 3D models are created using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) imagery and processing through Computer Vision (CV) methods. They are becoming more acceptable as reliable sources for study, documentation, diagnostics, intervention planning, monitoring, and management decision-making. The Deir-e-Kaj caravanserai, located in Qom, Iran, is a massive and half-destroyed architectural heritage that belongs to the Seljuk era. The obstructed access due to illegal deep excavations and the extensive demolished structure did not allow for a complete mapping using traditional and terrestrial techniques. Considering the condition and vulnerability of the artifact, it looks necessary to use a safe, non-destructive, and remote method for 3D documenting. The literature review shows in most of the research UAVs are used for acquiring nadir images, which are combined with the terrestrially acquired data for complete 3D modelling. In this case, a multi-view UAV imaging strategy is considered for the as-is 3D modelling of Deire-e-Kaj. Three different imaging angles are designed and used to carry out the comprehensive and all-needed data acquisition. The nadir images are acquired to cover the plan and enclosure, and the horizontal and oblique images cover the façades and interior spaces of the artifact. Adopting a suitable photogrammetric process based on the SfM workflow allows for obtaining an accurate, high-quality, and textured 3D model of the caravanserai. Accuracy evaluation of the result using Ground Control Points shows a total accuracy of ±1 cm. This study demonstrates the efficiency of multi-view UAV photogrammetry as a rapid, safe, and precise method to create a complete 3D model of massive, hard-to-access, and vulnerable Architectural Heritage.

Construction of schools in Iraq during Seljuk era (449-590 / 1055-1194)

important aspets of cunstrtion in Islamic civilisation.Generaly saljuks were very interested in buildng schools.Iraq became spiritual life of muslims because it was the center of Abassid chaliphate.caliphs,sultans,ministters,scientist and women of high ststure had a pivotal role in building and developing  schools Efforts of each of the above mentioned expressed Islamic sects Nizam al mulk, the yread vizier of saljuks, played an important and effective role in building schools, and he also asked people to build more schools. The pluralism different religlous scholars and administrators about schools led to the influx of students and teachers from all over the islamic world to Iraq especially to Baghdad city since it used to be the center of science .    &nbsp

Political Intermarriage between Seljuk's sultans with Islamic and non-Islamic forces

In view we can see that the Islamic eras in general and the Seljuk era in particular, we see that historians paid great attention to the political and military life in that era, we do not have enough information in the sources about the intermarriages of the sultans, and this is due to the fact that the research in social life in the ages Islam was linked to a large extent with the traditions prevailing in that era, especially since those traditions were conservative with regard to personal status, including the issue of marriage. Some intermarriages took place in that era, and the Seljuk sultans used intermarriages to assemble and hold the family, and they used it as a means of reconciliation and truce between them and the other side of the prevailing forces in the region, and among those Islamic forces, and other than with the non-state forces. and it was a factor of rapprochement between the two sides and at other times a factor of dissonance and distance between them.

Sufism in The Sense of Folk Medicine in Ottoman Society

Until the deep-rooted reforms started during the Selim III era, the Ottoman health system was based on the value series of the Seljuk era. The health institutions of the era, named Dârüşşifâ, bimarhâne and timarhâne, were not official state institutions. Still, they were established through the donations of bureaucrats and members of the public. Established in the classical period, the institution of ‘Hekimbaşılık (Chief Physicianship)’ mainly served to organize the health services of the palace and the army. During this period, when the state did not meet the health-related needs of people in Europe and the Ottoman State for an extended amount of time, people's health and treatment requirements were addressed through physicians, surgeons, and foundation hospitals in larger towns. Moving towards rural areas and greater masses, this duty was assumed by sheikhs, hodja, ocaklı, and healers who performed what could be described as traditional medicine or folk medicine. In Turkish communities, the origins of folk medicine date back to Shamanic Kams, who were believed to have supernatural powers in religious and worldly terms. Folks in those times believed that Shamans were men devoted to religion, exorcised evil spirits and had healing abilities. The majority of the population was in this belief. Despite the process of Islamization in the following periods, these beliefs were not forgotten completely but rather continued their existence by being adapted into Islamic beliefs. In this context, Shamans have continued their treatment duties mostly as ocaklı, but they assigned their religious tasks and healing duties to the Islamic guardian cult. This way, Sufis became a significant part of traditional folk medicine in Seljuk and the Ottoman era. Through the lodges and monasteries they established, Sufis integrated into social life in the Ottoman era. They performed countless important tasks for the community and the state, ranging from a settlement of nomads to transportation, accommodation of guests to securing secluded areas, and treatment of numerous psychological and physical diseases. The people strongly believed that Sufis were men of God, miracle workers, and protectors. This belief was foremost important for the acceptance of their healing abilities. As such, members of the public were seeking help from Sufis for all kinds of health issues, including mental problems, stomachaches, headaches, pain in different parts of the body, children’s health problems, infertility and behaviour disorders leading to domestic issues to epidemics. So much so that the curing capabilities of Sufis have sometimes been supported by the state and gained an official status. Hence the purpose of this study is to review the folk medicine aspect of Sufis in the Ottoman historic sphere and to reveal the treatment methods they used for several conditions. The subject has been explained under two main headlines; one consisting of spiritual practices such as prayer, dhikr, nazar, ruqya and shrine visitations, and the other one consisting of apparent practices such as fasting, herbal mixtures, and so on. While conducting this study, chronicles, Sufi works, memoirs of the era, archives and modern studies have been reviewed.

Socio-economic and cultural life during the Seljuk era

This article is devoted to the topic of socio-economic and cultural life during the Seljuk period, in which the existing social strata in the Seljuk state, that is, nomads, villagers, city dwellers, and their way of life, their role in society, land ownership system, economic life, tax and customs payments, trade, educational processes, and literary environment are discussed. In particular, nomadic Turkic tribes and their relations with the state, the nature and amount of taxes paid by them, the areas they lived in, their lifestyle, their products, and the way of life of villagers and peasants, who made up the largest part of the Seljuk society, their legal and economic status, their differences according to their geographical location, land ownership system (iqto, khiroji, ushri and miri), tax system, irrigation system, The development of urban culture during the Seljuk period, large cities and their lifestyle, the components of cities (inner fortress (kohandiz), main city (shahristan) and outer districts (rabat)), crafts and textile industry, national customs, religious holidays, Issues such as the development of international and domestic trade, improvement works and achievements in the fields of architecture, health, education and culture, and the literary environment are analyzed based on information from various sources.

The Effect of CCT on Vitality and Population Absorption in Urban Area Case Study: The Safavi Bridge Urban Area in Karaj, Iran

Vitality is one of the components affecting the desirability of urban space, the lack of attention has led to the decline of urban life. Historical areas in our country have been exposed to destruction or become unsafe and unsuitable spaces due to lack of attention. Illumination is one of the factors that can increase the presence of people in the area and thus increase the vitality of spaces at night. Correlated colour temperature (CCT) is one of the practical components in illumination, which can provide us with a variety of quality of space. It seems that changing CCT can be effective in the vitality of the urban area of the Karaj entrance bridge. The present study seeks to find a relationship between CCT and components affecting the vitality of the urban space of the entrance bridge of Karaj city. The entrance bridge of Karaj, dating back to the Seljuk era, is one of the important historical spaces that has become an unsafe and secluded place in recent years due to lack of proper attention. In this research, first, by descriptive-analytical method and using past experiences and the opinion of experts, vitality criteria concerning illumination have been extracted. Then, dual traits were inferred from the criteria and tested by semantic differentiation method using a questionnaire. To measure the effect of CCT, the images taken from the site were changed in SILKYPIX software, and dual traits were evaluated for each. SPSS software and mean test and one-sample T analysis method were used for statistical analysis of data and research reliability test. The results of data analysis showed that in all three images and nine modified modes, the average obtained from the software for the CCT mode of 4000 K is the best mode. Therefore, the results showed that with the decrease of CCT, the vitality criteria of urban spaces of Karaj Bridge also increased. These results can be used to improve the performance and quality of other urban areas.

Analysis of the Dome-Chamber’s Openness in Persian Historical Mosques

The dome, one of the most stable forms of roof coatings, has passed many of its evolution stages in the dome-chambers of Iranian mosques. From the Seljuk era, when the first dome-chambers were seen, to today, the extent of the openness of the dome-chamber space to the adjacent space—shabestans and the porches—has changed a lot. This research seeks to answer the questions of why and how openness has happened and what factors have influenced their intensity. Since there may be different answers to these questions at different periods, the physical properties of the domes were studied in terms of measurable variables, both in the general context and in each period. For this purpose, 51 dome-chamber mosques were selected from Seljuk to Qajar periods, with variation in physical characteristics. The research method is a combination of content analysis method, comparative study and logical reasoning based on the descriptive and correlational statistics. As a result, it has been shown that structural constraints related to the extent and magnitude of the dome-chamber, are considered the main reasons for deciding how much and how to open the dome-chamber’s walls in different periods and that as the ratio of the span to the wall thickness increases, the openness of the walls decreases to the same extent. Also, the architecture of seljuk and safavid mosques are more similar than the other periods, possibly due to the common religious characteristics that affected them both.

THE IMAGE OF THE VIZIER NIZAM AL-MALIK AL-TUSI AMONG HISTORIANS AND IN THE POETRY OF THE SELJUK ERA

The study deals with one of the historical Islamic figures who had a prominent presence in the theater of political, administrative, and social life in the battle of Al-Wazir Nizam al-Mulk al-tousi . The importance of the study and its goals stem from the popularity of his fame, his brilliance, the public’s love for him and their envy around him, and the large number of his enviers, his hatred and hatred for him. All this was a reason for the identification of this character, revealed his image and features, when he died and translated, and wrote about his circle, and what the poets of Seljuki, praise and lament, and from here stem the problem of the study by asking the question, "Do you match poets Was there an exaggeration among the poets, as is customary? All that was mentioned and narrated was a reason for the importance of the study and its objectives. Concerning the methodology of the study, I followed the descriptive and inferential . approach, from the historical novels about him, and from the collections of poets in his era. The study came in terms of its structure, divided into an introduction, two chapters with its demands, a conclusion, and a confirmation of the sources and references. Key words: Minister Nizam Al-Mulk, The Seljuk Era, Translations, Biographies, Historians, Poetry

Evolutionary study of spatial organization in the Islamic Period’s school’s architecture. Comparative study of Seljuk, Timurid, Safavid and Qajar Eras.

Evolutionary study of spatial organization in the Islamic Period’s school’s architecture. Comparative study of Seljuk, Timurid, Safavid and Qajar Eras.

Seismic evaluation of a renovated wooden hypostyle structure: A case study on a mosque designed with the combination of Asian and Byzantine styles in the Seljuk era (14th century AD)

Wooden hypostyle structures are primarily built using timber-framed construction types, surrounded by masonry walls on two or three facades. This construction technique is a combination of Asian (wooden frame) and Byzantine (masonry wall) techniques. The primary load-bearing system in these structures consists of multiple rows of wooden pillars. This paper focuses on the restoration of a historical wooden hypostyle mosque constructed in 1366. The mosque is a crucial example of wooden hypostyle tradition in the Anatolia region of Turkey. The study consists of four steps: field survey, lab tests, restoration practices, and seismic performance analyses for the examined structure. The on-site examination includes the visual inspection of material deterioration and the analyses of obtained samples from different places of the structure. Moreover, a building survey was carried out using three-dimensional laser scanning. Secondly, a laboratory study was performed using the samples gathered from the structure. The physical tests revealed that while the stone sample taken from the minaret had the highest porosity, the stone sample represents the west facade displayed the lowest porosity. Accordingly, the water absorption capacity of the stone sample taken from the west facade was the lowest. On the other hand, among samples, this stone sample had the highest wet and dry density. In the third step, the renovation process of the mosque considering its originality is presented. Lastly, the seismic performance level of the renovated structure is obtained using three analyses: linear, pushover, and kinematic approaches. Story drift ratios of the structure at the performance points for three earthquake ground motion levels meet the target performance requirements. Considering the realistic behavior of the material, the vulnerability of the main structure against the maximum credible earthquake is revealed in terms of tensile and shear stresses. The seismic vulnerability of the minaret is also determined in terms of both tensile and shear stresses and the story drifts ratios in both analysis types. We believe that the structural restoration processes presented in this paper to bring back a deteriorated historical mosque to its original form will provide a comprehensive approach to the literature.

SELÇUKLU HALI MOTİFLERİNİN ÇAĞDAŞ TÜRK SERAMİK SANATINDA KULLANIMI

Anatolian territories hosted a lot of civilizations for hundreds of years and saved It’s presence via the interaction between cultures that occured by the bridge It made between East and West. Anatolian Civilizations reflected their savings brought from the past to the all branches of art also created the fundamentals of the branch of art today known as Traditional Turkish Art. The carpet art,one of the leading branch of the History of the Traditional Turkish Art, survived from the Middle East to our day with It’s examples including rich colors, motifs and composition schemas . The carpet art gave It’s best examples during the Seljuk Era. Those motifs, which are transferred to present as a rich heritage, are used in contemporary ceramic forms as well as they’re used in contemporary carpet motifs. Those studies which can be named as an example for the interdisciplinary interaction, can prove the universal structure of the contemporary ceramic art and the variaty of It’s expression language. In this study; the examples of the carpet motifs which are used in contemporary ceramic art will be researched; the examples of the unique compositions created by the Seljuk carpet motifs which are with contemporary ceramic art will take place.

ETHNO-RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF DERBENT IN THE VI–XIX CENTURIES

A number of scientific publications with the involvement of a wide range of sources and materials have been devoted to the study of ethno-demographic processes and religious composition of Derbent. However, this issue cannot be considered fully understood. The problem of the ethnic and religious composition of the city of Derbent in the medieval era and modern times has not been studied in a wider period with the involvement of archive material. A more complete picture of the ethno-confessional composition of Derbent can be reconstructed basing on data of a different nature of sources, including narrative sources and archival documents. The present paper aims to recreate the most complete and objective picture of the formation of the ethno-confessional composition of Derbent in the context of the events of foreign-policy of the region that took place from the 6th and up to the 19th century. The author proposes an upper chronological bound, based on the study of ethnographers M.-R.A. Ibragimov and M.M. Magomedkhanov on the ethno-confessional composition of Derbent in the end of the 19th – early 21st century, which is based on the population census. The article presents a reasoned author’s opinion regarding the ethnic composition of Derbent’s population in the Sasanian, Arabic, Seljuk and pre-Mongol periods. The study conducted shows that the ethno-religious processes of the medieval Derbent were significantly influenced by the events of the foreign political nature in the region: in different time periods, depending on the foreign policy situation, the specific gravity of one or another ethnic component changed, representatives of one or another confession dominated in the city. With the beginning of the Seljuk era, an active process of Turkification of Derbent’s population started, which continued over following periods. As a result, according to the household lists of 1886, ¾ of the city’s population were Turks (modern Azerbaijanis), the rest ¼ part was composed of the Jews, Armenians and Russians.

THE PARTHIAN ROCK RELIEFS AND BAHDINAN GATE IN AMADIYA/AMEDI: A PRELIMINARY REPORT FROM THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY MAPPING MESOPOTAMIAN MONUMENTS SURVEY

This article presents three rock reliefs of the Parthian era in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, documented in Amadiya/Amedi by Columbia University's Mapping Mesopotamian Monuments survey project in 2013. The paper discusses the iconography, style and date of the reliefs and the methods that the Columbia team used to document them, including photogrammetry, perspectival corrected and perspective controlled stills, and 360° immersive, processed panoramas. At the same time as presenting a reading of the relief imagery, the article offers a preliminary self-reflective consideration of the documentation methods we have been utilizing for the study of rock reliefs in the past seven years. These technological advances, enormously useful for digital image capture, are nevertheless a form of imaging and must be understood as such methodologically. The final results of these kinds of technically advanced images of rock reliefs must rely on modes of visual interpretation that remain subjective and dependent on visual analytical skills based in historical knowledge, stylistic and iconographic analyses, as well as on-site, close up material-tactile studies of surfaces, of carving styles and methods. Finally, taking architectural context and landscape into account, the paper makes the case that the location of the reliefs dating to the Parthian era, at the citadel's entry, guided and inspired the Seljuk era monumental portals of Amadiya/Amedi that were subsequently erected and sculpted in dialogue with the ancient remains.

القصائد الكليات تأصيل وعرض وتحليل

The end of Abbasid poetry was characterized with inactivity and rumination of thoughts and ideas that resulted in the early centuries of the Abbasid Era. Some poems became famous in the Seljuk's era and nothing was new just reformulating the plot or the old poetic subjects. These poem have only the and anything behind that is fake .These poems were written based on origin lines from known poets ,and completed by unknown poets who had no luck in Art and fame .We entitled these poems with last poems because, it’s the final of nonesuch Abbasid era, or the Universals ,because it represented the brief of Abbasid poetry .Shpenkler in his book refers to the deterioration of Western Civilization, but the Civilization is transferring from youth to aging that can lose the ability of giving and liberality leaving the stage of creation and enters the stage of physical enjoyment and mental considerations mentioned by Toynbee ,and he called this void stage when the creative energy of civilization is stopped, and it will be ended and engraved.

A Critical Study on Components of Political Thought in Amir Adel tale by Nizam al-Mulk

Making historiography about Iran’s political thought in Seljuk era is futile without considering Nizam al-Mulk’s Siyasatnama. Applying historical approach to several tales in this book, Nizam al-Mulk endeavored to formulate his favorite and pleasant political-religious thought which defines political thought of Sunni Islam. The first and the most prominent and detailed tale is Amir Adel, which is investigated closely in this research by comparing to the other historical texts. This study sheds light on differences and peculiar aspects of Nizam al-Mulk’s Amir Adel narration and seeks reasons behind these significant differences in Nizam al-Mulk’s religious and political thought. Hence, there are two questions for this research: 1- What are the components of Nizam al-Mulk’s political thought; 2- How these components can form his Amir Adel narration.

(The relations of the Salafist state with the forces neighboring Persia (543-685 AH / 1148-1288 CE: علاقات الدولة السلغرية بالقوى المجاورة لبلاد فارس (543ـ-685هـ/1148 – 1288م)

In the Seljuk state, Persia was subject to the Seljuks. subordinate to them, governed by their deputies, Fares ruled during the Seljuk era several Atabakk such as Roknuddin Khmartkin, and then Jauli Sakao, and after His death took Maknobers the reign, then Buzaba who was killed by Sultan Masoud Seljuki. The Salafist state that ruled Persia was subject to the powerful states of the region at the time At the beginning of its command the Seijuks were subject to their independence from them, which appeared through some Events, and then after the weakness Of the Seljuk State. and the disintegration and emergence of the State algorithm (551 e / 1056 m) The State underwent a Strong algorithm, and its relationship was subordinated, subordinate. and then followed the appearance of invasion Mughai (628 AH / 1231 AD), and its expansion and spread and its impact on the State of Khwarizmin, the Mongols The invasion Of the Islamic world and the overthrow Of Baghdad in 656 AH (1258 CE), and it appears that the Salafist state was held With the Mongols a treaty stipulating that Persia would not be endangered in return for the payment Of annual royalties to Elkhan Mughal, and then developed this treaty to the intervention of the Mongols in the policy of the Salafist State, until it controlled After the Saigren became rulers by name only on Persia, and were subject to the real Mughai state controlling the affairs Of Persia. The problem of the research is to clarify the relation Of the Salgarian to the force controlling the region during their rule for Persians starting with the Seljuks and Attabikat of them and then the relationship between the Salgren Khwarzmin and to review their relationship with the Mongols. The Seljuks and the Atabkiyat affiliated with them, and then the relationship between the Salgarians and the Khwarizmians This study is based on historical research methodology based on the collection of scientific material from its sources Original and modern references, and ensure its credibility in research and survey, and presentation of the method of criticism In order to reach the most historical facts and use them in a scientific way,

The Role of Color in the Decoration of Tiling in Islamic Buildings of Seljuk Era

Islamic art has specific importance in different sections especially in the area of architecture and the related decorations. Generally, decoration has an important role in the history of Iran’s architecture and it has been continuing from far past to today and has preserved its continuity. In Seljuk era, Iranian artists decorated exterior parts of building with fine parts of turquoise glazed brick. In this way, we observe color in exterior decoration of buildings in this era. This method of decoration is used from old times and new techniques and diversities have been utilized by passing time and the architectures have constructed the most beautiful and enduring buildings.