Self-regulatory Bodies Research Articles

Collaborative Governance Structures for Interoperability in the EU’s new data acts

Abstract This contribution analyses the EU’s new data acts. Interoperability is a common denominator of the EU’s new data acts. This paper demonstrates that the new data acts provide various approaches or concepts of collaborative governance to regulate interoperability. Although the EU’s new data acts are far from a uniform governance concept, we detected certain institutional arrangements organising the collaboration between private self-regulatory bodies, other private stakeholders and public bodies to lay down rules for interoperability.

Drug company methodologies used for reporting in the UK pharmaceutical industry payment transparency database between 2015 and 2019: A content analysis

Pharmaceutical companies spend hundreds of millions of pounds on marketing/R&D-related payments annually to healthcare organisations and healthcare professionals. UK pharmaceutical industry self-regulatory bodies require member companies who sign up to their code of conduct to publish details of their payments. They are also required to publish the methodologies underlying these payments, namely methodological notes. This study aimed to analyse UK pharmaceutical companies’ methodological notes and their adherence to the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry code of conduct and other relevant guidance. We conducted a content analysis of methodological notes for the years 2015, 2017 and 2019 and assessed companies’ adherence to self-regulatory bodies’ requirements and recommendations for methodology disclosure. Overall, 90 companies made payment disclosures in all three years, publishing 269 methodological notes. We found gaps in adherence to self-regulatory requirements. Only 3 (3.3 %) companies provided clear information for all self-regulatory body recommendations and regulations in all of their notes. Companies also varied in their approaches to important areas. For example, of the 244 notes with clear information on VAT management, 36.1 % (N = 88) included VAT, 30.3 % (N = 74) excluded VAT, and 33.6 % (N = 82) had multiple rules for VAT. There was evidence of widespread non-adherence to self-regulatory requirements. This suggests flaws with self-regulation and a need for greater enforcement of rules or consideration of a publicly mandated disclosure system.

International Regulatory Experience and Enlightenment on Non-Legal Tender Digital Currency from the Perspective of the Kame Framework

Based on the current imperfect regulatory system for non-legal digital currencies in China, this article focuses on the regulation of non-legal digital currencies, exploring regulatory paths and models suitable for Chinas national conditions based on the regulatory experiences of typical foreign countries. The renowned law and economics theory frameworkthe Coase-Meade frameworkis adopted to analyze the overall regulatory model of non-legal digital currency regulation abroad. Firstly, based on the applicability value of the Coase-Meade framework to the subject of this study, typical countries such as Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and South Korea are analyzed under the Coase-Meade frameworks prohibition and transaction rules, property rules, and liability rules to clarify their legal characterization of non-legal digital currencies and explore regulatory paths in terms of legal, financial, and technological regulation. Next, the characteristics of foreign regulatory models are reviewed, including scenario-based regulation, centralized regulation, and categorized regulation. Finally, drawing on Chinas current prohibition stance and overseas practical experience, the article preliminarily clarifies the legal attributes of non-legal digital currencies. Then, it constructs a regulatory framework suitable for the country from the perspectives of principles, priorities, and methods based on the chosen paths of typical countries. Additionally, it emphasizes the clarity of regulatory responsibilities for regulatory agencies and the establishment of other self-regulatory bodies to enhance the coordination of domestic regulatory entities. Furthermore, it actively explores international cooperation to strengthen international coordination in regulation, enhancing Chinas international influence and discourse power.

SLAPPs against journalists in Europe: Exploring the role of self-regulatory bodies

Reports show that media freedom is under pressure worldwide. Violence against journalists has a legal facet that takes the form of Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPPs) that aim at silencing critical speech. While in some countries there are legal protections against SLAPPs, in Europe a debate is only recently being carried out, mainly fostered by professional journalist associations and civil society. This article explores the role that European journalistic self-regulatory bodies perceive they (could) have in fighting SLAPPs, analysing 16 qualitative answers gathered via a questionnaire. Self-regulation has historically been a way to protect the independence of journalism and uphold its ethical standards. The open-ended responses help to understand how SLAPPs put into question the representations that media councils and professional associations use to construct their ‘professional jurisdiction’, and therefore, their ‘territory’ and the way in which they see their role in society. Our results provide food for thought on the handling of legal attacks against journalists.

Directions for improving media standards during the electoral process in Ukraine, taking into account the experience of leading European countries

The article identifies the ways to improve the standards of media work during the electoral process in the context of Ukraine’s European integration and takes into account the experience of leading European countries.
 The influence of the media on the establishment of democracy in Ukraine is especially relevant during the electoral process, so the scientific community needs to develop a unified approach to understanding the standards of media work, including during elections.
 At the level of the European Union, a number of acts have been adopted that are sources of media standards and are applied during the electoral process: The European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights, the Audiovisual Media Services Directive, the Enhanced Code of Practice on Disinformation, and the Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters. In some EU countries, there are self-regulatory bodies, such as the Press Council or the Broadcasting Council, which are responsible for monitoring media compliance with ethical and professional standards.
 At the international and regional levels, there are organizations that participate in the formation of media standards, such as The International Federation of Journalists and the European Federation of Journalists. Ukraine is represented in these international organizations by The National Union of Journalists of Ukraine and the Independent Media Trade Union of Ukraine.
 Undoubtedly, Ukraine should continue to take into account international and EU practices in the field of media standards, as well as introduce mechanisms of media self-regulation, in particular, codes of conduct and internal ethics committees, establish an independent ombudsman to mediate between the media and citizens in cases of alleged violations of media standards during the electoral process, and change the procedure for appointing members of the National Council on Television and Radio Broadcasting.

UK esthetics associations: A robust safety net or credibility accessories?

Currently, safe practice in the UK esthetics industry is largely reliant on self-regulatory bodies. If these bodies do not maintain high standards of safety guidelines and properly accredit practitioners, patient safety may be at risk. To our knowledge, no studies have addressed cosmetic self-regulatory bodies and their websites on Google, the most commonly used information source. This study aimed to map self-regulatory bodies on Google and evaluate their roles in the current UK esthetics industry. We conducted a systematic search of Google Search results using eight search terms. The first 100 search results were screened against our eligibility criteria. We searched each website of a self-regulatory body for their requirements to join registers, membership fees, and features listed on the UK government's criteria for an effective self-regulatory body. We identified 22 self-regulating bodies for the UK esthetics industry. Only 15% of registers required an in-person assessment of cosmetic skills to qualify for membership. Of the self-regulatory bodies, 65% did not set clear standards and guidelines for practice. No qualifications were required by 14% of surgical and 31% of non-surgical bodies. The mean membership fee was £331. This study uncovered important information about the self-regulation of the esthetics industry in the UK. A significant majority of self-regulatory bodies did not meet best practices, potentially putting patients at risk. We recommend further studies screening a higher number of pages in a Google Search to scope all other existing self-regulatory bodies, due to the creation of Google "filter bubbles."

Implied Claims in Drug Advertising: A Review of Recent Literature and Regulatory Actions

ABSTRACT Federal agencies and self-regulatory bodies help to ensure prescription and nonprescription drug promotion contains accurate information; however, false or misleading claims may cause people to have inaccurate perceptions of a drug and inhibit their ability to make informed decisions. We conducted a systematic review assessing evidence from 2012–2021 on how consumers and healthcare providers (HCPs) interpret claims made indirectly or through inference (implied or implicit claims) as well as synthesizing prescription and nonprescription drug advertising claims that have been the subject of regulatory actions from 2017–2021. Our search identified 16 studies from the peer-reviewed literature and 26 letters or case reports issued by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or National Advertising Division (NAD). Results from peer-reviewed studies suggest that implied claims can result in inferences that may not be warranted by the material facts about the drug. Perceptions of a drug’s efficacy and, to a lesser extent, risk, are influenced by implied and explicitly false claims in prescription drug promotion. Claims related to implied superiority and overstatement of efficacy were the most prevalent claims flagged for review and examined in the literature. These types of claims were also the subject of many of the compliance actions by the FDA and case reports from the NAD. More research is needed to understand how people interpret varying types of implied claims and the impact of such claims on key outcomes. From a policy standpoint, understanding how people interpret implied claims can inform how the FDA approaches these claims in the marketplace.

LEGAL AND ETHICAL ASPECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA USER PROVISION OF INFORMATION TO THE PUBLIC REGULATION: THE VIEW OF MEDIA REGULATORY AND SELF-REGULATORY BODIES IN LITHUANIA

Social media users are recognised to be a new actor in the field of public information. Their activities along with professional journalists’ activities of providing information to the public differ. The changing field of public information and peculiarities of providing information to the public by social media users prompt scientific discussions on social media regulation in relation to information provision to the public. The aim of the research is to determine the criteria for equating activities of information provision to the public by social media users with activities of public information professionals in the context of legal and ethical regulation of professional media. The research is carried out by analysing legal documents regulating the activities of Lithuanian media and social media, as well as decisions adopted by self-regulatory bodies and other institutions. Having conducted the research, it was established that in Lithuania the criteria for equating SM users to journalists are the criteria of journalistic activity (functionality) and journalistic professionalism. For acknowledgment that SM users provide information to the public like journalists, criteria of information publicity, dissemination, accessibility, and possibility of information control are raised.

From texts to contexts: the self-regulating body in the Japanese adult video industry

ABSTRACT This paper examines how the Japanese self-regulatory systems that evolved in the aftermath of the Second World War to regulate the sexual content within Japanese films metamorphosed into a powerful state apparatus to create fear and uncertainty for those involved in making adult videos. We depict the history of Japan’s obscenity laws, from their origin as a response to Western imperialism to the self-regulatory bodies created in the post-war period of the American Occupation to maintain the obscenity laws while conceding to American demands for freedom of creative expression. Thus, these self-regulatory bodies originated to mediate between two antithetical Western imperial requirements in a state initially wanting to modernize and then democratize. We then examine how the notorious prosecution of the Nihon Ethics of Video Association (Bideo Rinri Kyōkai aka Biderin), the self-regulatory of the adult video industry, brought to a head the contradictions inherent in the state’s deployment of these bodies while revealing a more sinister dynamic of state control.

INITIAL REGULATEE PERCEPTION OF THE SELFREGULATION APPROACH IN THE REGULATORY ENFORCEMENT OF MEDICINE ADVERTISEMENTS

Medicine advertisements need to be controlled to ensure public interest is protected from harm and complications. This is because the medicine advertisements accessed could be misleading, untrue, and contain highly exaggerated advertising claims. The law in the control of medicine advertising is complex and advancements in technology has made advertising of medicines even more challenging. Typically, every public-policy problem will be solved through legislation or government action. However, the implementation of the self-regulation approach in regulatory enforcement of medicine advertisements has not been evidently shown and therefore, needs to be studied. This study is aimed at determining regulatees’ initial perception in adopting the self-regulation approach in the regulatory enforcement of medicine advertisements in Malaysia. A mixed method study was conducted using data collected from the feedback obtained through an evaluation form distributed at a seminar organised in 2015 and from library research. Data generated from the 2015 seminar was the only data available at the national level and this data could only be obtained from the Pharmacy Enforcement Division. The seminar, which was attended by regulators, government agencies, publishers, advertising agencies, companies from the pharmaceutical industry, and the relevant organisations who were stakeholders in he industry, was a way to advance new guidelines and a regulatory enforcement approach on medicine advertisement. The results from the survey revealed that 58 percent of the participants favoured the self-regulation approach. Their perceptions were found to be positive towards the self-regulation approach. Based on a thematic analysis, the results seemed to suggest that the concern of the regulatees about the self-regulation approach could be categorised into four important factors, which were the Malaysian industry’s attitude and behaviour, government approval, government enforcement, and the management of the self-regulation approach. Nevertheless, in order to adopt the self-regulation approach, this study has highly recommended that the government should explicitly encourage self-regulatory bodies in Malaysia to implement the self-regulatory approach. For future studies, it is suggested that research be conducted to identify the effectiveness of the self-regulation approach among the various stakeholders of medicine advertisement.

Tymczasowy pełnomocnik szczególny w postępowaniu podatkowym

Przedmiot badań: Przedmiotem badań jest instytucja tymczasowego pełnomocnika szczególnego, ustanawianego w postępowaniu podatkowym na zasadach przewidzianych w art. 138l–138n Ordynacji podatkowej (w szczególności zakres i przesłanki jego umocowania, tryb wyznaczania oraz funkcjonowanie tymczasowych pełnomocników szczególnych, będących przedstawicielami zawodów zaufania publicznego w Polsce w latach 2017–2021).
 Cel badawczy: Celem badawczym jest ustalenie ratio legis instytucji tymczasowego pełnomocnika szczególnego oraz jego roli i „kompetencji” w postępowaniu podatkowym, jak również ocena funkcjonowania tej instytucji w Polsce w latach 2017–2021, z wykorzystaniem badań empirycznych.
 Metoda badawcza: W pracy wykorzystano co do zasady metodę teoretycznoprawną i dogmatycznoprawną (polegające na analizie uregulowań prawnych zawartych w Ordynacji podatkowej, a także komentarzy, monografii, artykułów oraz orzecznictwa sądów administracyjnych). Ponadto, dokonano interpretacji zgromadzonego materiału empirycznego, pozyskanego od organów samorządów zawodowych (doradców podatkowych, adwokatów oraz radców prawnych).
 Wyniki: Instytucję tymczasowego pełnomocnika szczególnego, pomimo zaledwie kilku lat funkcjonowania i tymczasowego charakteru, uznać należy za istotną i potrzebną, ponieważ stanowi ona gwarancję należytej reprezentacji osób nieobecnych, co jest przejawem zasady czynnego udziału strony w postępowaniu podatkowym. Liczba zawodowych tymczasowych pełnomocników szczególnych w latach 2017–2021 systematycznie rosła, co należy ocenić pozytywnie. Najliczniejszą grupę w tym zakresie stanowili w badanych latach radcy prawni. Można założyć, że zaobserwowana tendencja wzrostowa zostanie utrzymana.

Digital Market, Bloggers, and Trendsetters: The New World of Advertising Law

The importance of digital marketing is continuously growing, at least in the present economic phase. Within this sector, fashion bloggers play a crucial role, which reflects the relevance of fashion on an economic and a social level, as already highlighted in Georg Simmel’s pioneering study. New communication opportunities made available by the development of digital technologies shed more light on this phenomenon. One of the main concerns is the need to guarantee the transparency and the correctness of commercial communications shared through social media in order to ensure the consumers’ full freedom of choice. However, can traditional rules on advertising be considered sufficient, or is there a need for ad hoc rules? Can consumers’ protection be reconciled with other values such as the creative freedom of advertisers and, more generally, the freedom of expression? Thus far, interventions by self-regulatory bodies and independent authorities, both at national and international levels, have proven to be effective, even if more “classic” regulatory interventions may occur in the future. After a short reference to the literature concerning fashion as a social phenomenon, the contribution focuses on the main solutions adopted in Italy and in Europe.

The reform of 2007 on regulation of the market of legal services in England and Wales as an institutional experiment

Abstract The article presents a reform that provides a regulatory framework for the legal services market, implemented as the Legal Services Act of 2007 in England and Wales. The reform was intended to systematise the institutional system of that market, to increase its transparency, to increase the role of competition and to enhance the position taken by customers at the expense of the current legal self-regulatory bodies. The reform involved development of a multi-level management structure for institutions–organisations that supervise or represent lawyers handling various market segments. A new form of functioning was provided to lawyers in order to facilitate acquisition of capital and know-how. A new package of supervisory measures was initiated and applied to operations undertaken by lawyers and their companies. The aim of this case study is an attempt at evaluating the above-mentioned reform and drawing conclusions for model operation of the legal services market. In order to achieve such an aim, the institutional change is described based on the current data about the functioning of regulators, taken from their websites. The article also refers to literature related to regulation of legal professions and the English-Welsh context. The conclusions that have been drawn prove the advisability of its implementation. For the sake of economic and social evaluation of the outcomes of the applied solutions, the dynamics of the rates describing market operation (supply, prices, demand, consumer choice) has been analysed. It has been stated that since the implementation of the reform in 2008, the accessibility of legal assistance has been increased along with the quality of legal services and market competitiveness. However, the authors of the reform have been disappointed with the scarce interest in new forms of development provided to legal companies, innovation for licensed lawyers and further increase in prices of legal services. A demand barrier has been also encountered. Despite all those facts, the value of the legal services market in England and Wales has been increased and export of legal services and the number of licensed lawyers have also grown. Furthermore, the reform has already found its followers in other countries.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ САМОРЕГУЛІВНИХ ОРГАНІЗАЦІЙ В МЕХАНІЗМІ ЗАХИСТУ ДІТЕЙ ВІД НЕГАТИВНОГО ВПЛИВУ РЕКЛАМИ

The research aims to determine the role of self-regulatory bodies in monitoring advertising activities and in protecting the child from their adverse influence, to assess the current state of self-regulation in this area in Ukraine and to determine necessary components for its systematic implementation into domestic legal system. In order to achieve aforesaid aims the following methods of legal research have been applied: analysis, systemic analysis, generalization, legal modeling. Specifically, the method of analysis has been used to extract the features of the successful activities that are conducted by selfregulatory organization in other countries. To derive patterns and clarify the reasons for the effective activities of self-regulatory organizations, methods of generalization and systemic analysis have been used. In addition, the method of legal modeling has been elaborated in order to determine the possible ways of self-regulatory system implementation in Ukraine. The author analyzes the concept of self-regulation. The advantages of self-regulation in comparison with the state regulation are evaluated. Namely, it is done through the prism of the relevant legal experience taken from Great Britain, France, the United States of America. The conditions necessary for the implementation of a self-regulatory system are revealed. The current state of self-regulation in Ukraine is scrutinized. This makes it possible to find out the reasons for its underdevelopment in national legal context. In general, the analysis of Ukrainian legislation on advertising is carried out and the issues of the self-regulatory system in the context of protecting children from the negative impact of advertising information are studies thoroughly. Approaches and relevant empirical material analyzed within the article allow the author to arrive at following conclusions. The author identifies the value of self-regulation, particularly, its advantages in comparison with the state regulation. Additionally, the author emphasizes the lack of special legislation in Ukraine that regulates the legal status of self-regulatory organizations in the field of advertising; insufficiency of the scope of public organizations powers stipulated in the legislation; the inconsistency of the activities of a significant number of public associations in this area as well as the absence of a certain sustainable reform in outlined domain. In this vein, the connection between the lack of systemic reforms in this area, desuetude, conflict of laws, as well as incomplete legislation and the decrease in the authority of the law for the actors in the advertising industry is established. The author suggests the ways of implementation of significant institutional changes in the legal regulation for self-regulatory organizations' activities in Ukraine, primarily in terms of consolidating their legal status, functioning certain rules and principles of state control over their activities.

Complaints addressed by regulatory authorities in drug advertising targeted at consumers: Cases across three, different countries.

Misleading advertisements can affect behavior of both consumers and prescribers and may lead to inappropriate use of medications. To analyze the complaints upheld by regulatory authorities in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia regarding pharmaceutical advertising directed at consumers. Complaints addressed between January 2014 and June 2017 were retrieved from the websites of regulatory authorities. Complaints addressed by self-regulatory bodies were not included due to the poor availability of data. Sixty complaints, 374 complaints, and 223 complaints from the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, respectively, were analyzed. In the United Kingdom, the most frequent type of violation was advertising of prescription drugs (70.5%); most of these violations involved botulinum toxin. In Canada, advertising on online media was more likely to be associated with prescription drugs than that on traditional media (P < 0.001). In Australia, advertising of prescription drugs accounted for less than 10% of complaints, but all were associated with online media. In countries where direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs is prohibited, regulatory authorities may need to devise further strategies to safeguard the public as this is an unresolved issue and is predicted to become more problematic with the increased use of online media.

Post-crisis Regulation of Asset Management

While asset managers’ behavior has not been among the root causes of the financial crisis, their industry’s size and structure have generated financial stability concerns among policymakers. Global regulatory bodies nowadays agree that asset management activities are “systemically important”. On the other hand, the growth in retail activities has prompted regulatory and self-regulatory bodies to enact new rules relating to conduct of business, advice and best execution.Our essay briefly reviews global reforms affecting the asset management industry, focusing first on systemic interventions and then discussing investor protection reforms. To conclude, it addresses some emerging issues that we expect to be on policymakers’ agenda in the future.

Accounting (f)or Tax: The Global Battle for Corporate Transparency

A growing number of leaks and scandals from tax havens have put tax avoidance by multinational companies on the political agenda. Yet under conditions of corporate financial secrecy, reforms remain incomplete and their impact on reducing illicit financial flows uncertain. This paper details how proposals by the United Nations for greater corporate transparency, and specifically rules to compel multinational companies to break down their consolidated accounts to a company specific, or regional, basis have been blocked by the business lobby for a period of over forty years. It discerns three main lobby tactics used to prevent progress, namely forum shifting, regulatory capture/embedded lobbyism and reframing. These tactics first resulted in shifting responsibility for global accounting standard setting away from the United Nations, and to the self-regulatory bodies dominated by the Big 4 accounting firms. Later, these tactics were used to block progress at the OECD and European Union levels. The three major capital-exporting nations Germany, Japan and the United States are shown to play a key role in defending the status quo of corporate secrecy and accounting self regulation under which corporate tax avoidance can thrive.

Barriers to Digitalisation of Healthcare in Germany: A Survey of Experts

Digital health is a growing area in healthcare with a huge potential. Nevertheless, the degree of digitalization in German healthcare is low when compared internationally and with other German industries. Despite political efforts, certain barriers seem to strongly impede the process of digitalization process in healthcare. We surveyed 18 representative healthcare experts from various sectors with semi-structured interviews on barriers and solutions for digital health. Thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke was used for interpretation. The interviewees identified barriers that were stakeholder-specific and across stakeholders. Self-regulatory bodies and the medical profession were found to lack willingness and organizational structure for digitalization. Lack of evidence and missing interoperability represented primary obstacles, while current legislation and financial regulations were rarely mentioned. In particular, infrastructure expansion and interoperability would require a coordinated, state intervention. Positive communication on possibilities and benefits of digital solutions was also considered important. A strong political will, an overarching strategy accompanied by a communication concept seems to be necessary in order for digital health to succeed. Regarding legislation, binding specifications, deadlines and sanctions may be needed for self-regulatory bodies, while also involving users in the development process at an early stage and creating positive incentives for using digital solutions.

Sweden ∙ Pharmaceutical Advertising In Sweden: Two New Guiding Decisions By The Industry’s Self-Regulatory Bodies

The Information Examiner Committee (‘IGN’) and the Information Practices Committee (‘NBL’) recently rendered two decisions, each shedding new light on two important pharmaceutical advertising matters in Sweden. The NBL’s decision addressed the demarcation between pharmaceutical information issued for marketing purposes on the one hand, and press releases as protected by freedom of speech on the other. In exploring the boundaries of freedom of speech, a key provision for the NBL to consider was the prohibition against marketing unauthorised medicinal products under Chapter 12, Section 1 of the Medicinal Products Act (SFS 2015:315) (‘Medicinal Products Act’). The IGN’s decision, in turn, provided some clarity on the scope of the communication on medicinal products that may legally take place between a contracting authority and a pharmaceutical company in the procurement context. This case thus mainly centred on Article 2 of the LER rules, which states that all information provided on a medicinal product must be based directly on the SmPC of that product.

Marco ético-legal da publicidade infantil no Brasil e na Espanha: estudo comparativo

This article aims to present a comparative study between Brazil and Spain with regard to public policies (regulation) and the self-regulation scenario (codes of ethics and other fronts) aimed at children’s advertising in such countries, and to update the debate around an ethical and legal framework most appropriated to the defense of children’s rights. The methodology used was a literature review of works on sociology of childhood, child psychology, advertising ethics and consumer society, documentary research in codes of ethics and current legislation and bills of both countries, as well as interviews with leaders of the Brazilian (CONAR) and Spanish (AUTOCONTROL) self-regulatory bodies. Among the main results, it was observed, for example, that the Spanish legal field on child advertising is closer to a co-regulatory scenario, since the existing norms provide for a more synchronized operation between state and market in defense of the rights of consumers. Also, it was seen that, with Resolution 163/2014 by CONANDA, Brazil would theoretically have a more robust regulation that the one of Spain on child advertising, despite the fact that its guidelines are not being properly followed. Finally, among other results, there was a stronger performance of the Spanish self-regulation organ in the supervision of ethical violations in advertising targeted to children, as many ads are judged each year before they enter in circulation. Keywords: children’s advertising, public communication policies, ethics in advertising, childhood, advertising self-regulation.