Selected OECD Countries Research Articles

Ecological situation and changes in food demand in the EU member states and selected OECD countries: Spatio-temporal analysis

The ongoing process of globalization significantly affects the level of socio-economic development of countries and the progressing economic convergence. Along with the economic development of countries, changes in the level and structure of household consumption occur as a result of getting richer. The aim of the study is to analyze the unification of demand for food in households of the EU Member States and selected OECD countries in 1995–2019, with particular emphasis on spatial relationships. The study also addresses the issue of the relationship between changes in the level and structure of consumption of households with their ecological situation. This relationship is very important due to the assumptions about the idea of sustainable consumption. In the study of the equalization of the level of expenditure on food, the approach of β-absolute convergence and β-conditional convergence were applied. In the second approach, spatio-temporal convergence models were also estimated, taking into account the similarity of food expenditure, conditioned by the geographical location of territorial units. Moreover, the similarity of the ecological situation between analyzed countries was determined, which is the basis for the creation of an additional connection matrix, used in the estimation of spatio-temporal convergence models. The spatio-temporal analysis was based on spatial autoregressive model (SAR) and spatial error model (SE). This study confirms that in the analyzed countries in period of 1995–2019, there was an equalization of the level and share of household expenditure on food, related to the unification of consumption possibilities, determined by the convergence of disposable income.

Supply risk evolution of raw materials for batteries and fossil fuels for selected OECD countries (2000–2018)

Fossil fuels are the dominant form of storable energy, but their share in the global energy supply is slowly diminishing due to climate mitigation policies. Alternative energy production from variable renewable energy sources for both stationary and mobile use requires some form of energy storage. Batteries are the current frontrunner for this application, particularly with Li-ion batteries that are reliable and highly efficient. However, batteries themselves have evolved to meet current requirements and expectations. These changes in battery chemistry have shifted the dependency on raw materials used to produce them. Raw materials critical for battery production are subject to supply risk due to their availability or trade policies prompting a need for supply risk assessment. Such resource supply risks depend on the perspective of the importing country or region. By analysing the supply risk of raw materials used in the production of batteries in comparison to fossil fuels, it is possible to understand the shift in risk to storable energy that is underway. In this study, we analyse the supply risk of selected raw materials used in batteries and compare it with the supply risk of fossil fuels for the period 2000 to 2018 from the perspective of the European Union, USA, South Korea, Japan, Canada and Australia using the GeoPolRisk method. Our analysis demonstrates a higher risk of supply for raw materials compared to that of fossil fuels for all the selected territories. Rare earth elements, graphite and magnesium, are amongst the raw materials with the highest supply risk due to their concentrated production in one or only a few countries. Countries have recognised the need for raw material security and made specific policies to ensure secure supply. Raw material security is an emerging concern for all the countries, especially in the case of batteries for major manufacturing nations that are heavily import-dependent. Raw materials producing countries like Canada and Australia focused on stockpiling minerals and minerals exploration while importing countries such as Japan and South Korea are looking for alternate sources for their supply. The results from our analysis suggest that the necessary policy reforms taken for energy security have benefited all the countries with a reduced risk of fossil fuel supply, while similar policies to secure raw materials are discussed but not yet fully implemented.

OECD ÜLKELERİNDE HÜKÜMET HARCAMALARI, EKONOMİK BÜYÜME VE ENFLASYON ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİ "THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES, ECONOMIC GROWTH AND INFLATION IN OECD COUNTRIES"

Governments will want to achieve their highest priority goal according to their economic circumstances. Governments use many tools to achieve these goals. Economic growth and price stability are among the main objectives which fall within the scope of governments. One of the most important tools that governments will deploy to achieve these goals government expenditures, which is a fiscal policy tool. In this study, the relationship between government expenditures, economic growth and inflation in 9 randomly selected OECD countries (France, Germany, Italy, UK, Portugal, Hungary, Spain, Finland and Poland) was analyzed by panel causality method using annual data for the period 2010-2019. As a result of the analysis, a bidirectional causality relationship was found between economic growth and inflation in the period analyzed. It was also found that there was a unidirectional causality relationship from inflation to government expenditures and from government expenditures to economic growth.

Cinsiyet ücret eşitsizliğini etkileyen faktörler: Bazı OECD ülkelerinden ampirik bulgular

Nowadays, poverty has become a multi-dimensional problem, including social factors, rather than just an economic problem. Especially recently, poverty has been addressed in terms of gender focused on women and men. Gender-oriented approach to the problem of poverty has been gradually increasing. In the gender-based poverty approach, inequalities between men and women are addressed and it is emphasized that women are poorer than men. According to this approach, poverty is increasingly feminized, and women are a part of poverty to a greater extent than men in terms of gender. The increasing impoverishment of women is also expressed as the feminization of poverty One of the most important reasons of women's impoverishment is the wage inequality between men and women. In this context, this study aims to analyze the effects of factors playing an important role in women's impoverishment on wage inequality are analyzed in the sample of selected OECD countries for the period of 1996-2016. According to the results, women's participation in the labor force, life expectancy at birth, higher level of education have a decreasing effect on gender wage gap. In addition, the increase in the employment rates of women in the industry sector also has a decreasing effect on wage inequality. On the other hand, the low education level of women and the increase in the female population over 65age increase the gender wage gap.

THE CAUSAL LINKAGES between RENEWABLE ENERGY CONSUMPTION, ECONOMIC GROWTH, OIL PRICES and CO2 EMISSIONS in SELECTED OECD COUNTRIES

Purpose: It is aimed to examine the relationship between Renewable Energy Consumption (REN), Economic Growth (GDP), Oil Prices (OP), and CO2 emissions (CO2) in selected OECD countries by using the data for the period 1980-2014.Methodology: In the study, Kónya Panel Bootstrap causality method is utilized to determine the relationship between variables.Findings: Firstly, there is a bidirectional causality relationship between REN and CO2 for Canada and Italy; there is a one-way linkage from REN to CO2 in Greece and Ireland, while there is unidirectional causality from CO2 to REN in Austria, Switzerland, and United States. Secondly, there exists a bidirectional causality relationship between the REN and GDP in Italy. In contrast, there is a one-way causality linkage from GDP to REN in Switzerland and Belgium and from REN to GDP in the Netherlands. Thirdly, it is found that there is a bidirectional causality relationship between REN and OP in the United States; there is a one-way causality linkage from OP to REN in Austria, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland, from REN to OP in Japan.Originality: The study has originality in that it examines the relationship among the variables for the selected OECD countries and through Kónya causality method.

The impact of Covid‐19 on innovation policies promoting Open Innovation

Since the eruption of the Covid‐19 pandemic, in response to the global health emergency, governments have focused on designing policies aimed at the development of more innovative products and services. Effective collaboration, communication, and Open Innovation (OI) between government organizations, education and research institutions, and the marketplace have been fundamental to the success of each country's response during the crisis period. Using a comprehensive data set from OECD on innovation policies implemented by governments before and during the Covid‐19 crisis, this paper analyses the extent to which these innovation policies promote OI and how these policy decisions evolve to support an effective response to the pandemic. Through a cluster analysis, we identify four possible government innovation policy strategies (centralizers; conservative OI promoters; collaborative supporters; open collaborators) and analyze how these strategies evolve before and during Covid‐19. Our findings confirm that even though there is an increased use of innovation policies promoting OI during the crisis, there is little evidence of consistency between the policy strategy used pre‐Covid and during the crisis for each country. However, there is an increased use of four types of innovation policy instruments, i.e., those entailing formal consultation with stakeholders and experts; fellowships and postgraduate loans and scholarships; networking and collaborative platforms; and dedicated support to research infrastructures. Although the paper limits the scope of the analysis to the early government reactions in selected OECD countries, it captures an important moment in time (i.e., reaction to a severe shock), which opens avenues for future studies.

Environmental technology and wastewater treatment: Strategies to achieve environmental sustainability

Water is the vital liquid for human subsistence and is used as a resource in various production processes. However, the degradation of the environment is being reflected in the water resources of the planet. One of the leading causes of water pollution is ineffective wastewater treatment, which results in greywater being returned to the environment without having gone through a decontamination process. Ideally, wastewater should have the lowest concentration of polluting materials to be reused and exploited in other activities, such as agriculture or the generation of renewable energy. However, in its various forms, technological progress plays a vital role in improving wastewater treatment processes, becoming a determining factor in improving greywater quality. This study examines how environmental technology contributes to wastewater improvement in 16 selected OECD countries during 2000–2019. Annualized information is used and collected from various official sources of information, subsequently processed with various econometric approaches. The results obtained show a heterogeneous behaviour in the quantiles of wastewater treatment, environmental technology and renewable energy are positively related to an increase in wastewater treatment between 0.09% - 0.20% and 3.5 e−12% - 5.74 e−12%, respectively. Based on the results obtained, the policy implications suggest promoting environmental technology to improve wastewater treatment.

Dual Efficiency and Productivity Analysis of Renewable Energy Alternatives of OECD Countries

This paper examines the dual efficiency of bioenergy, renewable hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy, and geothermal energy for selected OECD countries through an integrated model with energy, economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Two questions are explored: Which renewable energy alternative is more dual efficient and productive? Which renewable energy alternative is best for a particular country? Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is used for the efficiency evaluation, and the global Malmquist productivity index is applied for productivity analysis. Results indicate bioenergy as the most efficient renewable energy alternative with a 20% increase in average efficiency in 2016 compared to 2012. Renewable hydro energy, wind energy, and solar energy show a 17.5%, 16%, and 11% increase, respectively. The average efficiency growth across all renewable energy alternatives signifies major advancement. Country performance in renewable energy is non-monolithic; therefore, they should customize their renewable energy portfolio accordingly to their strengths to enhance renewable energy efficiency. Renewable hydro appears to have the most positive productivity change in 2016 compared to 2012, while solar energy regressed in productivity due to its scale inefficiency. All renewable energy alternatives have relatively equal average pure efficiency change. The positive trend in efficiency and productivity provides an incentive for policy makers to pursue further development of renewable energy technologies with a focus on improving scale efficiency.

Investigating the Effect of Oil Revenue Shocks on Business Cycles and the Synchronism of Cycles with Selected OECD Countries

The effect of temporary and permanent shocks of oil revenues on the concurrence of trade cycles between Iran and selected OECD countries has been investigated using the data series of the period 1985–2019. For this purpose, first, business cycles and temporary and permanent shocks of oil revenues are extracted using Hodrick-Prescott (HP) filter and Blanchard-Quah technique, respectively. Then, the relationship between business cycles and model-independent variables is evaluated by the ARDL method. The results show that the main cause of business cycle fluctuations is temporary shocks to oil revenues, also, government expenditure variables and permanent and temporary shocks to oil revenues in the short and long term have a negative and significant effect on business cycles, and the exchange rate variable has a positive and significant effect on business cycles. Estimation of business cycle synchronization index shows that Belgium, Germany, Greece, Japan, Spain, and Turkey have had business cycles synchronization with Iran. And Germany with a correlation coefficient of 0.42 has the most synchronization of business cycles with Iran.

Managing fiscal risks: Lessons from case studies of selected OECD countries

Based on five case studies, this paper looks at the definition and classification of fiscal risks; sets out the components of a comprehensive fiscal risks framework; and examines how to operationalise such a framework. It then summarises challenges and key lessons to be considered by countries that wish to implement OECD recommendations in this area to increase the resilience of their public finances in the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak.

Trust and professionalism in science: medical codes as a model for scientific negligence?

BackgroundProfessional communities such as the medical community are acutely concerned with negligence: the category of misconduct where a professional does not live up to the standards expected of a professional of similar qualifications. Since science is currently strengthening its structures of self-regulation in parallel to the professions, this raises the question to what extent the scientific community is concerned with negligence, and if not, whether it should be. By means of comparative analysis of medical and scientific codes of conduct, we aim to highlight the role (or lack thereof) of negligence provisions in codes of conduct for scientists, and to discuss the normative consequences for future codes of conduct.MethodsWe collected scientific and medical codes of conduct in a selection of OECD countries, and submitted each code of conduct to comparative textual analysis.ResultsNegligence is invariably listed as an infraction of the norms of integrity in medical codes of conduct, but only rarely so in the scientific codes. When the latter list negligence, they typically do not provide any detail on the meaning of ‘negligence’.DiscussionUnlike codes of conduct for professionals, current codes of conduct for scientists are largely silent on the issue of negligence, or explicitly exclude negligence as a type of misconduct. In the few cases where negligence is stipulated to constitute misconduct, no responsibilities are identified that would help prevent negligence. While we caution against unreasonable negligence provisions as well as disproportionate sanctioning systems, we do argue that negligence provisions are crucial for justified trust in the scientific community, and hence that there is a very strong rationale for including negligence provisions in codes of conduct.

The impact of corporations and banking system leverage on renewable energy: Evidence from selected OECD countries

This study investigated the impact of corporate sector variables on energy supply and demand in OECD countries. In the first stage of the investigation, a panel nonlinear model was employed to assess the effects of financial corporation debt to equity (FCDE), non-financial corporation debt to surplus (NFCDS), and banking system leverage on the contribution of renewable energy to primary energy. In the second stage, the influences of these independent variables on geo biomass, hydro, solar, and wind energy consumption were investigated. The findings demonstrate that FCDE and NFCDS are the firm-specific factors that influence renewable energy supply in the long run. The significant relationship between financial firm leverage and renewable energy highlights the fact that leverage is one of the main obstacles to further investment in renewable energy. Moreover, while banking system leverage has no impact on renewable energy’s contribution to primary energy, it has a discernible influence on solar and geo biomass energy consumption. Solar is the only renewable energy variable that is influenced by financial corporations and banking system leverage.

Dynamic linkages between financial inclusion and carbon emissions: Evidence from selected OECD countries

This study analyzes the dynamic linkages between financial inclusion, energy consumption, and carbon emissions taking corruption, infrastructure, and economic growth as control variables. The data of 23 OECD countries covering the period from 2004 to 2017 have been used. The study develops two indexes with the help of Principal Component Analysis; one for financial inclusion and the other for infrastructure. The study also adopts second generation tests for unit root and cross-sectional dependence. To check long-run linkages, this study uses (Dynamic) Common Correlated Effects Estimator technique, also called CS-ARDL, which provides more reliable results. The results indicate positive connections between financial inclusion, energy consumption and carbon emissions. Corruption, infrastructure and economic growth are highly sensitive to carbon emissions. The study provides important points for pollution control and attaining the targets of sustainable development. Efforts are needed on government level to align the financial inclusion targets with energy usage behavior and environmental policies.

Selected socio-economic factors co-occurring with high fertility rate in the OECD countries

This article presents the results of examining selected factors co-occurring with high fertility rate in developed countries. Selected OECD countries at a similar stage of demographic development have been subjected to analysis. By means of cluster analysis, the selected developed countries have also been identified according to the type of adopted family policy. It has been found that the developed countries which spend more on family policy in relation to GDP are generally characterised by higher fertility rates than those which spend less. In the light of those findings, the family-policy expenditures which allow women to reconcile professional work with raising children turned out to be particularly important. The fertility rate has also been found to clearly correlate with labour market rates, with the level of women’s professional activity in particular. Moreover, in the developed countries the relatively high fertility rate is accompanied by low rates of young people who do not work or attend school and are not in vocational training, as well as a high rate of extramarital births.

Comparing Green Economy in Iran with OECD Asian Countries by Applying TOPSIS and GI Method

In this study, we tried to calculate Iran’s green growth index and compare it with four selected OECD countries in the continent of Asia, Turkey, Japan, Korea, and Israel in 2015 by applying the Green Index, and Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution. Our research provides a new methodology to rank different countries based on green growth indicators. Applying both methods, Iran ranked fourth among the selected countries. Iran, in comparison to Turkey, Japan, and Korea, is behind in developing sustainability and green economy indices.

Real GDP per capita: global redistribution of economic power

The growth rate of real GDP per capita, GDPpc, is represented as a sum of two components – a monotonically decreasing economic trend and fluctuations related to population change. The economic trend is modelled by an inverse function of GDPpc with a constant numerator which varies for the largest developed economies. In 2006, a statistical analysis conducted for 19 selected OECD countries for the period between 1950 and 2003 showed a very weak linear trend in the annual GDPpc increment for the largest economies: the USA, Japan, France, Italy, and Spain. The UK, Australia, and Canada showed a slightly steeper positive linear trend. The 2012 revision showed that the positive trends became much lower and some of them fell below zero due to the Great Recession. The fluctuations around the trend values are characterized by a quasi-normal distribution with heavy and asymmetric tails. This research revises the previous estimates and extends the set of studied countries by economies in East Europe, Latin America, BRICS, Africa, and Asia including several positive outliers with extremely fast growth. The change in GDP definitions and measuring procedures with time and economic source is discussed in relation to the statistical significance of the trend estimates and data quality requirements for a consistent economic model. The relative performance of all counties since 1960 is compared according to the predicted total GDPpc growth as a function of the initial value. The performance in the 21st century is analysed separately as revealing potential and actual shifts in the global economic powers.

The Causal Linkages of Human Development Index and Economic Complexity Index: a Panel Analysis for Selected OECD Countries

The Causal Linkages of Human Development Index and Economic Complexity Index: a Panel Analysis for Selected OECD Countries

The Impacts of Outward FDI on Income Inequality in Selected OECD countries

Küreselleşmenin hızla ilerlediği günümüzde doğrudan yabancı yatırımların dünya ülkelerinin geneline yayılması bu ülkelerdeki gelir dağılımının bozulmasına neden olmuştur. Bu küreselleşme süreciyle birlikte gelir eşitsizliği kavramı da giderek daha önemli hale gelmiştir. Bu amaçla çalışmada doğrudan yabancı sermaye yatırım çıkışlarının (ODI) gelir eşitsizliği üzerindeki etkisi OECD ülkelerinden seçilen 10 ülke için 2003-2018 dönemini kapsayan yıllık verilerle incelenmiştir. Çalışmada öncelikle panel birim kök testleri ile değişkenlerin durağanlıkları kontrol edilmiş ve panel ARDL modelinin kullanılmasına karar verilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, panelin geneli için ülkelerdeki doğrudan yabancı sermaye yatırım çıkışları gelir dağılımı eşitsizliğini istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ve pozitif etkilemektedir.

AR-Ge Yatırımları Yüksek Teknolojili Ürün İhracatı Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Seçilmiş OECD Ülkeleri

Bilim ve teknolojide yaşanan gelişmeler sonucunda ekonomik büyümenin belirleyicileri de değişmiştir. Buna göre ekonomik büyümenin artırılması için teknoloji, eğitim, beşeri sermaye, bilgi gibi faktörlere ihtiyaç duyulmaya başlanmıştır. Bu durumu açıklamak üzere yeni büyüme modelleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu modellere göre AR-GE faaliyetleri sonucunda meydana gelen teknik bilgi ile mal ve hizmetlerin hem niteliği hem de niceliği artacaktır. Meydana gelen bu üretim artışı ihracatı teşvik ederek hazinede gelir artışına neden olacaktır. Bu çalışmada 1996- 2017 dönemi için seçilmiş OECD ülkelerinde AR-GE yatırımları, yüksek teknolojili ürün ihracatı ve ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişki panel veri analizi ile test edilmektedir. Analiz sonucunda AR-GE yatırımlarından ekonomik büyümeye doğru tek yönlü nedensellik ilişkisi tespit edilmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra ekonomik büyüme ile yüksek teknolojili ürün ihracatı ve AR-GE yatırımları ile yüksek teknolojili ürün ihracatı arasında çift yönlü nedensellik ilişkisi olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.

Efficiency Analysis in Higher Education: The Case of Selected OECD Countries

Küreselleşme ile birlikte bilginin ve teknolojinin hakim olduğu dünyada yeni bir çağ başlamıştır. Bilgi “güç” haline gelmiştir. Bundan dolayı içinde bulunduğumuz dönemde bilginin ve bilimin yuvası olan yükseköğretime olan talep artmıştır. Talebi karşılayabilmek için üniversitelere yeni yatırımlar yapılmaktadır. Yatırımların ne derece etkin kullanıldığının tespiti açısından yükseköğretimde performans değerlendirmesi önem arz etmektedir. Bu bağlamda bu çalışmada, 2015 yılı baz alınarak Veri Zarflama Analizi (VZA) ile seçilmiş OECD ülkelerinde hem akademik performansa, hem de eğitime yönelik göstergeler kullanılarak yükseköğretimde etkinliğin ölçülmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bu amaçla gerçekleştirilen etkinlik analizi kapsamında, akademik performansa yönelik 25 OECD ülkesi ve eğitime yönelik iki farklı veri kümesi ile sırasıyla 24 ve 25 OECD ülkesi benzer girdi kullanan ve çıktı üreten karar verme birimi olarak belirlenmiştir. Analizlerde etkinlik değerleri ile birlikte çıktı değişkenleri açısından etkin olmayan karar verme birimlerinin (KVB) potansiyel iyileştirme oranları hesaplanmıştır. Bu çalışmada akademik performans ve eğitime yönelik etkinlik analizinden elde edilen sonuçlara göre, Türkiye en düşük etkinliğe sahip ülkeler arasında yer almaktadır. Her üç analizde de etkin bulunan ülkeler Finlandiya, İrlanda ve Slovenya’dır.