Selected Eastern European Countries Research Articles

Zagrożenie sztucznej inteligencji dla usług szkolnictwa wyższego: analizy statystyczne w wybranych krajach Europy Wschodniej

Szybki rozwój i wdrożenie Sztucznej Inteligencji (SI) wywołują liczne dyskusje na temat zalet i zagrożeń związanych z technologią SI. Biznesmeni i przedsiębiorcy coraz częściej wykorzystują SI w dziedzinach, takich jak opieka zdrowotna, marketing, branża hotelarska, nauka, sztuka i edukacja. Z kolei prawnicy, autorzy fantastyki naukowej, naukowcy oraz niektóre grupy konsumentów SI coraz głośniej apelują o ostrożność. SI zagościła również w praktykach szkolnictwa wyższego. Celem niniejszej publikacji jest dostarczenie nowych danych naukowych, które mogą stanowić podstawę do opracowania naukowo uzasadnionych planów i prognoz, a także podejmowania wielopoziomowych decyzji zarządczych. Hipoteza badawcza brzmi: nie ma studentów, którzy uważają, że „Sztuczna Inteligencja stanowi zagrożenie dla szkolnictwa wyższego w najbliższych 5 latach”. Hipoteza badawcza została przekształcona w parę hipotez statystycznych: Badawcza i Alternatywna. Autorzy przyjęli Teorię Obsługi Klienta jako teoretyczną podstawę badania. Dlatego zbadali opinie 1744 konsumentów usług edukacyjnych (studentów) z 8 uniwersytetów 5 krajów Europy Wschodniej. Autorzy zastosowali rzetelne standardowe metody badawcze. Były to przegląd literatury, ankietyzacja respondentów z użyciem technologii chmurowych i narzędzi SI, graficzne przedstawienie wyników oraz analiza statystyczna. Pierwsza faza przetwarzania danych i graficzne przedstawienie wyników ankiety pokazały, że 23,05% ogólnej liczby respondentów uważa, że SI stanowi zagrożenie dla szkolnictwa wyższego w najbliższych 5 latach. Następnie autorzy zbadali osobno opinie studentów dla każdej grupy respondentów. Weryfikacja hipotez statystycznych doprowadziła do odrzucenia hipotezy badawczej dla wszystkich grup respondentów. Alternatywna hipoteza została przyjęta dla każdej grupy respondentów: liczba studentów uważających, że Sztuczna Inteligencja stanowi zagrożenie dla szkolnictwa wyższego w najbliższych 5 latach, jest większa od zera, jeśli nie uwzględnia się losowych fluktuacji. Alternatywna hipoteza została przyjęta z wysokim poziomem istotności 0,01. Oznacza to, że rządy krajowe i liderzy uniwersytetów mogą tworzyć plany, prognozy oraz podejmować wielopoziomowe decyzje zarządcze na podstawie nowych danych naukowych. Te plany, prognozy i decyzje zarządcze będą realizowane z precyzyjnym, przewidywalnym prawdopodobieństwem. Celem kolejnego etapu badania będzie szczegółowe zbadanie zagrożeń, które studenci dostrzegają w zastosowaniu SI w szkolnictwie wyższym.

Post-COVID-19 economic recovery in the context of SDG8 and SDG9: the case of selected Eastern European countries

Assessing the economic development of countries in the context of the tasks defined in the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is essential from the point of view of determining progress in achieving the SDGs. It becomes especially relevant in periods of global challenges and disturbances, one of which is the COVID-19 pandemic. The goals of SDG8 and SDG9 contain indicators that are determined mainly by the state of development of the country’s economy, so the analysis of trends in their changes is important in the context of identifying trends in economic growth in general, as well as for evaluating progress in achieving these goals. The purpose of the study is to identify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economic development of countries to achieve sustainable development goals and assess progress trends in the post-pandemic recovery of the economies of Eastern Europe by analyzing quantitative data from official statistical sources. The object of the study is the economic development of Eastern European countries in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study period covers the time range from 2017 to 2021 and includes both the pre-pandemic and pandemic periods. Eight countries of Eastern Europe were chosen as research objects. Indicators of official statistics related to SDG8 and SDG9 sub-goals were selected for analysis. The study showed a significant decrease in the values of most indicators, which was caused by the destructive effect of the pandemic. To assess the possible development trajectory, we calculated the estimated value of indicators for 2022 using the Holt-Winters method. The results showed that, despite some progress in 2021, in 2022, the values of the indicators are decreasing. Such estimates correspond to the trends provided by international institutions. We have built a composite indicator to assess the economic development trend comprehensively. The results of the evaluation confirmed the general trend towards a decrease in the level of economic growth in the context of the goals of SDG8 and SDG9 for all the countries of Eastern Europe selected in the study.

Textile Industry Efficiency in Eastern European Countries

Abstract In the global world where competition is increasing constantly, efficient use of resources is becoming more important for the textile industry. In this study, the efficiency scores and inefficiency effects of the textile industry in selected Eastern European countries were investigated using stochastic frontier analysis. The results indicate that age has a negative impact on inefficiency in the Czech Republic and Hungary. The current ratio decreases the inefficiency in Slovakia, Poland and Hungary, while time decreases that in Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Hungary.

HOW ARE BUSINESSES ADOPTING CIRCULAR PRACTICES – EMPIRICAL STUDY ON THE CASE OF GEORGIA AND SELECTED EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

The shift towards circular practices requires a variety of supportive actions from different parties, such as education from academic institutions, institutional support from government and policymakers, and financial aid. Our research aims to provide data on the adoption of circular practices in Georgia and selected Eastern European countries. The findings of the research summarize the trends of adoption of circular practices among firms in different economies.In today's rapidly changing business environment, companies are under increasing pressure to reduce their environmental impact and embrace sustainable practices. Circular economy is seen as a promising solution to these challenges, as it shifts the focus from linear models of production and consumption to a closed-loop system where waste is reduced and resources are conserved.The concept of circular economy has gained significant traction in recent years, as companies seek to reduce their environmental impact and achieve long-term sustainability. By adopting circular practices, companies can reduce the cost of goods sold, improve resource efficiency, and promote a cleaner environment. However, the adoption of circular practices requires a significant change in organizational culture, which can be challenging for many businesses.Our research aims to provide practical information for policymakers and stakeholders from the private sector on the adoption of circular practices in Georgia and selected Eastern European countries. The results of the research will provide valuable insights into the trends of adoption of circular practices among firms in different economies and highlight the benefits of embracing circular economy.In conclusion, the transition to circular practices is a highly sought-after trend for businesses seeking to reduce their cost of goods sold, promote sustainability, and benefit from a cleaner environment. The adoption of circular practices requires a significant change in organizational culture, which can be challenging for many businesses. Our research aims to provide practical information for policymakers and stakeholders from the private sector on the adoption of circular practices in Georgia and selected Eastern European countries and summarize the trends of adoption of circular practices among firms in different economies.

COVID-19 mortality rate determinants in selected Eastern European countries

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has caused increased mortality worldwide. We noticed a tendency for higher number of deaths in Eastern European countries. Therefore, we decided to investigate whether any common factor that might be responsible for the increased COVID-19 mortality exists.MethodsIn our cross-sectional study, we conducted the correlation and multiple regression analysis using R basing on the data gathered in publicly available databases. In the analysis, we included variables such as: number of deaths, number of new cases, number of hospitalizations, number of ICU (intensive care units) patients, number of vaccinations, number of boosters, number of fully vaccinated individuals, stringency index, number of reported COVID-19 variant cases, and number of flights. Additionally, we analyzed the influence of population density and median age in particular European countries on total number of COVID-19 deaths. Analyzed data represents periods from start of the COVID-19 pandemic in particular Eastern European Countries: Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, while as the end of the study the day of January 31, 2022 is considered. Results were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05.ResultsOur study showed that mortality rate reflects the number of COVID-19 cases (e.g. for Poland was 0.0058, p < 0.001), number of hospitalized patients (e.g. for Poland 0.0116, p < 0.001), and patients in intensive care (e.g. for Slovakia 0.2326, p < 0.001). Stringency index corresponding to level of introduced restrictions and vaccination can affect the mortality rate of COVID-19 in a country-dependent manner: e.g. for Romania 0.0006, p < 0.001; whereas in Lithuania − 0.0002, p < 0.001. Moreover, occurrence of B.1.1.7 and B.1.617.2 variants increased COVID-19 mortality rates.ConclusionOur analysis showed that crucial factor for decreasing mortality is proper healthcare joined by accurate restriction policy. Additionally, our study shows that COVID-19 vaccination proven successful in COVID-19 mortality prevention.

Non-salary employment conditions as a factor shaping migration decision-making: an example of workers from Ukraine in Poland

The paper studies non-salary employment conditions as a factor affecting labour migrants’ choice the host country and a particular employer. It argues that the extant literature, focusing mainly on wage levels offered by employers, is insufficient to understand the decisions taken by migrants, especially if there is persistently low unemployment and high demand for foreign labour in a given market. A secondary analysis of the results of two empirical studies conducted in Poland in the period 2017–2019, focusing on various categories of Ukrainian workers, was used to shed a light on the role of non-salary employment conditions in the migration decision-making process. At that time, Poland encountered both low levels of unemployment and persistent demand for foreign workers, as well as liberal immigration regulations for labour immigration from selected Eastern European countries. Therefore, it met the conditions of the so-called migration laboratory.

Empirical Analysis of the Relationship Between Trade Openness and Economic Growth: The Case of Eastern European Countries

Geçtiğimiz yüzyılın en çarpıcı ekonomik ve siyasal olaylarından biri olan SSCB’nin dağılmasıyla, birlikten ayrılan ve merkezi planlamacı ekonomi anlayışına sahip olan Doğu Avrupa ülkeleri daha önce tecrübe etmedikleri serbest piyasa ekonomisine geçmiştirler. Bu siyasi ve iktisadi değişimle birlikte Doğu Avrupa ülkeleri, aynı dönemde küreselleşme akımlarının etkisi altında kalarak ticari liberalizasyon süreçleri ile karşılaşarak ticari dışa açık bir yapıya sahip olmuşturlar. Bu çalışmanın amacı seçili 10 Doğu Avrupa ülkesinde ticari dışa açıklık ile ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişkiyi 1995-2020 dönemi boyunca analiz etmektedir. Yapılan zaman serisi analizi sonucuna göre, 3 ülkede (Letonya, Litvanya, Slovakya) ticari dışa açıklık ve ekonomik büyüme arasında uzun dönem ilişkisi tespit edilmiştir. Panel veri analizi sonuçlarına göre, ticari açıklık ve ekonomik büyüme arasında herhangi bir ilişki tespit edilememiştir.

THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (AN EXAMPLE FROM EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES)

Entrepreneurship has had an indecisive role due to its effects in enhancing living standards for usual people, exploiting opportunities in undiscovered areas, improving sustainability in all fields, and encouraging the process of innovation. In this sense, entrepreneurship plays an important role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations (UNSDGs-2030). The main goal of this research is to study the role of entrepreneurship in achieving sustainable development goals through conducting a qualitative method. Granger causality test was used for selected Eastern European countries (2006 – 2016), data were collected from Global Entrepreneur Monitor and World development indicators. The study concluded through Granger’s causality that entrepreneurship causes human development and therefore affects the economic and social dimensions of Sustainable Development. Entrepreneurship is one of the causes of economic growth, and the relationship between entrepreneurship and the extent to which environmental quality is achieved is moving from the environmental dimension to Entrepreneurship.

Measuring the Success of EU Expansion Process Comparing FDI Levels before and after the Accession to EU In Relation to CPI-Based Real Effective Exchange Rate Indices

The economic impact of the EU expansion on individual member states belong to imperative justifications of the EU enlargement. These contributions reward the union membership becoming the partial sovereignty loss trade-off. FDI inflow is considered one of such key benefits for new members. While the FDI impacts on economies have been studied from many angles, factors that cause the attraction of FDI are to be analysed as they are an important influence in future investment decisions making part of the enlargement justification, justifying the sovereignty loss trade-off. Future FDI inflows may be signalled by variables such as Real Effective Exchange Rate, being a proxy for trade competitiveness, expected to differ in economies prior to and after the entry to EU. The analysis of the relationship between the Real Effective Exchange Rate and the FDI inflow is performed on selected Eastern European countries before and after the accession, with the conclusion that convincing arguments for the FDI inflow indications, at least when measuring them through the lens of Real Effective Exchange Rate and GDP, may not be present.

Impact assessment of the COVID19 on trade between Eastern Europe and China

The high-risk of the rapidly spreading COVID-19 virus worldwide created a necessity for developing a diagnostic tool designed to predict economic development, considering the risks of spreading the coronavirus epidemic. In the proposed research, China is selected strategically due to the U.S. "Buy American" trade policy. Also, the European Union presents various trade barriers for countries of Eastern Europe. The risk-versus-economic efficiency study is performed based on Fibonacci law utilizing trade-dynamic indicators with incorporating the SIR-model used to predict the dynamics of COVID-19 cases in the region. The research was performed based on data collected for the period of March-July 2020. As a result, a scientific model to predict the dynamics of trade volume between China and selected Eastern European countries is developed. The results obtained have a practical application and can be used for government institutions and economic agencies to determine their nation's short- and long-term international trade strategy.

Mutual Influences Between Motherhood and Educational Attainment in Selected Eastern European Countries

Abstract Women are spending an ever longer part of their lives enrolled in education programs. A crucial question in this context is how motherhood can be reconciled and correlated with continued investment in human capital. A related question concerns the role the socioeconomic context plays in the education/family life balance. In the present study we account for the finding that a pregnancy resulting in a first birth usually triggers the termination of formal education, and, conversely, that the completion of education is often followed by a first birth. We use a simultaneous-hazard two-equation model, controlling for common potential but unobserved determinants. Relative to work already done on these matters, our study extends previous investigations to Eastern European countries which have not been adequately researched so far. To strengthen comparison, we have additionally included two Western European countries. This allowed us to assess the importance of political context. The results show that despite efforts to offer women the possibility of choosing both motherhood and being enrolled in education, the educational policies which were introduced in some Eastern European countries after the fall of communist political regimes could not counteract the negative effects of the transition to a market economy. In these formerly communist countries, the continuation of studies in parallel with childbearing and family formation has become more difficult.

Business cycles synchronisation between the EU-15 and selected Eastern European Countries – The wavelet coherence approach

This paper strives to investigate the level of business cycles synchronisation between 8 Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC) and the EU-15. We use wavelet coherence and phase difference methodology as a very suitable tool that observes simultaneously the strength of business cycles’ co-movement in the aspect of time as well as in the aspect of frequency. The results indicate that the business cycles of CEECs are generally synchronised with the EU-15 business cycles, whereas distinct differences existed before, during, and after the financial crisis (2008–2009) and during the European sovereign debt crisis (2010–2011). In other words, we demonstrate that very strong business cycles synchronisation occurred in almost all CEECs during crisis periods and at higher wavelet scales, while only moderate synchronisation is recorded in relatively tranquil periods at higher frequencies. The results suggest that smaller CEECs, but also larger countries such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, and to some extent Slovakia as well have a higher level of business cycles synchronisation with the EU-15, particularly in the crisis period at short-run as well as at long-run fluctuations. However, we do not find strong business cycles co-movement in cases of Poland and Latvia via HP and BP filters at higher frequencies during the crisis, which might indicate a higher resistance of these countries to external systemic shocks.

Global trends in nasopharyngeal cancer mortality since 1970 and predictions for 2020: Focus on low-risk areas.

Nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) mortality shows great disparity between endemic high risk areas, where non-keratinizing carcinoma (NKC) histology is prevalent, and non-endemic low risk regions, where the keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma (KSCC) type is more frequent. We used the World Health Organization database to calculate NPC mortality trends from 1970 to 2014 in several countries worldwide. For the European Union (EU), the United States (US) and Japan, we also predicted trends to 2020. In 2012, the highest age-standardized (world standard) rates were in Hong Kong (4.51/100,000 men and 1.15/100,000 women), followed by selected Eastern European countries. The lowest rates were in Northern Europe and Latin America. EU rates were 0.27/100,000 men and 0.09/100,000 women, US rates were 0.20/100,000 men and 0.08/100,000 women and Japanese rates were 0.16/100,000 men and 0.04/100,000 women. NPC mortality trends were favourable for several countries. The decline was -15% in men and -5% in women between 2002 and 2012 in the EU, -12% in men and -9% in women in the US and about -30% in both sexes in Hong Kong and Japan. The favourable patterns in Europe and the United States are predicted to continue. Changes in salted fish and preserved food consumption account for the fall in NKC. Smoking and alcohol prevalence disparities between sexes and geographic areas may explain the different rates and trends observed for KSCC and partially for NKC. Dietary patterns, as well as improvement in management of the disease, may partly account for the observed trends, too.

Analyses of Meldonium (Mildronate) from Blood, Dried Blood Spots (DBS), and Urine Suggest Drug Incorporation into Erythrocytes.

Initially developed in the late 1970s for veterinary applications due to proposed growth-promoting effects in animals [5], meldonium has become an approved drug in selected Eastern European countries and is the subject of ongoing clinical trials focusing the compound’s anti-ischemic and cardioprotective properties [2] [3] [12] [15] as well as potential applications regarding diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and bronchopulmonary diseases. In the context of athletic performance, beneficial effects on the individuals’ physical working capacity, increased endurance performance, and accelerated recovery after physical activity were discussed [4] [10] [11], mentioning oral doses of meldonium of up to 2.0 g per day over 2–3 weeks in the course of pre-competition preparation phases [4]. In 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) initiated a one-year monitoring program [22] regarding the prevalence of meldonium (mildronate) in doping controls. Obtained data demonstrated a considerable extent of meldonium use by athletes [8] [16], which was further corroborated by a significant number of declarations of use and analytical findings at the Baku 2015 European Games [18]. Subsequently, the WADA Prohibited List that became effective in January 2016 [24] classified meldonium as banned under S4 (Hormone and Metabolic Modulators).

The Potential of Biotechnology Investments in Selected Eastern European Countries: Lost Chances

Abstract Background: Biotechnology is rapidly developing on a global scale. However, some evidence indicates that Eastern European (EE) countries are not fulfilling their potential in this field. Objectives: This paper aims to examine whether selected EE countries are able to develop a strong biotechnology industry. Potential investment approaches and the existing but not used or neglected infrastructures in EE countries were also examined. Methods/approach: In order to determine biotechnological activities in EE countries, indicators such as intellectual property protection, venture capital availability, published scientific publications as well as other indicators were analyzed. These indicators were compiled and compared between EE countries and regions with a rich and diverse biotechnological business sector. Results: The results suggest an underdeveloped biotechnology business sector in EE countries, with talented but unexploited scientists and unutilized infrastructure. The systematic drawbacks of EE countries lead to a hostile investment environment. Conclusions: The findings make a significant contribution to understanding how the biotechnology industry in EE countries is structured and how investments can be rationally placed. EE countries need to adapt their venture capital market for biotechnology ventures. Several changes in regulations could have a large impact on biotechnology investments.

The recent decline in gallbladder cancer mortality in Europe.

Mortality from gallbladder cancer has been traditionally high in Eastern Europe, and lower in northern countries. Trends in 18 European countries, including the European Union (EU) and selected Eastern European countries, have been updated using official death certification data abstracted from the WHO database over the period 1980-1999. In the EU, age-standardized rates declined by about 30% between the late 1980s and 1999 to reach 1.8/100 000 for women, and by about 10% to reach 1.4/100 000 for men. In the Czech Republic and Hungary, rates for women were over 6/100 000 until the early 1990s, and declined by about 25% thereafter. For males, gallbladder cancer mortality showed no consistent trend, with rates over 3/100 000. Thus, a high mortality area from gallbladder cancer is still evident for both sexes in Central and Eastern Europe. The trends in mortality from gallbladder cancer are probably influenced by changes in risk factor exposure, such as diet, nutrition or tobacco, but essentially reflect more widespread and earlier adoption of cholecystectomy in the EU, since gallstones are the major risk factor for gallbladder cancer. The data also indicate the scope for further improvement of the management of gallbladder disease in Eastern Europe.

The fall in breast cancer mortality in Europe

Between 1981 and 1997, breast cancer mortality at age 20–69 years has decreased by 22% in the UK and 19% in the USA, and a 25% decline has been projected to the year 2000 [1]. In the European Union as a whole, overall age-standardised mortality from breast cancer declined by 7% between 1988 and 1996 [2]. Since the largest advances in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment have been obtained in women below the age of 70 years, and the adoption of various interventions responsible for some reduction in breast cancer mortality has not been homogeneous across various European countries [2], it is therefore of interest to consider recent trends in breast cancer mortality in different countries and in separate age groups. Data were abstracted from the World Health Organization (WHO) database, re-coded according to the Ninth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), and standardised by quinquennia of age using the world standard population [3], for comparative purposes with other areas of the world. The pattern of trends described was in any case similar using the European standard population. Table 1 gives age-standardised breast cancer death certification rates around 1988 and 1998 in three separate age groups (20–49, 50–69, 70–79 years) for 32 European countries, and in the European Union (EU) as a whole. In all Western European countries, except Belgium (whose data, were not available after 1994), breast cancer mortality at age 20–49 years declined. The overall decline in the EU was 16.3%, from 12.3 to 10.3/ 100 000, and most countries — including the largest ones — had a rate close to 10/100 000. The decline was larger in the UK, but the absolute value in 1998 (11.6) was still comparatively high. The pattern was inconsistent for the Eastern European countries considered (i.e. former non-market economy European countries), which however had considerably lower breast cancer rates in the 1980s [3]. Likewise, in the age group 50–69 years, most Western European countries, except Norway, showed a fall in breast cancer mortality, for an average of 8.6% in the European Union (from 73.1 to 66.8/100 000). France, Germany and Italy had rates very close to 65/100 000, while the UK showed a larger decline, but still had a higher death rate (74.4). In Eastern Europe, rates started from lower values, but were generally stable or upwards. At age 70–79 years, the overall decline in the EU was 4%, from 116.5 to 111.8/100 000. France, Germany and Italy had rates between 101.9 and 115.3, while the UK had a larger decline ( 15.1%), but still a higher absolute value in 1998 (129.0). Fig. 1 gives a global figure of trends in breast cancer mortality at age 20–69 years in 22 selected European countries, providing meaningful and comparable data from the early 1960s onwards, plus the Russian Federation and Ukraine for which data were available since the early 1980s. Fig. 2 gives comparable data for the whole EU, and six selected Eastern European countries providing meaningful data since the early 1986s. The former Czechoslovakia, since 1992, includes the Czech Republic and Slovakia; data for other Eastern European countries were not available in a comparable format in the 1980s. In the EU, breast cancer mortality rates at age 20–69 years rose from 23.8/100 000 in 1960–1964 to reach a peak of 29.7 in 1985–1989, and subsequently fell to 27.3, i.e. a rate comparable to that registered in the mid-1970s. In Eastern Europe, comparable rates rose from 14.4 in 1960–1964 to 24.1 in 1990–1994, and subsequently stabilised in 1995–1997 (24.2/100 000). Table 2 gives breast cancer mortality rates for the same geographical areas and selected calendar periods and at age 70 years or over, and 20–69 years, over the

The Social Determinants of the Decline of Life Expectancy in Russia and Eastern Europe: A Lifestyle Explanation

This paper examines the social origins of the rise in adult mortality in Russia and selected Eastern European countries. Three explanations for this trend are considered: (1) Soviet health policy, (2) social stress, and (3) health lifestyles. The socialist states were generally characterized by a persistently poor mortality performance as part of a long-term process of deterioration, with particularly negative outcomes for the life expectancy of middle-aged, male manual workers. Soviet-style health policy was ineffective in dealing with the crisis, and stress per se does not seem to be the primary cause of the rise in mortality. Although more research is needed, the suggestion is made that poor health lifestyles--reflected especially in heavy alcohol consumption, and also in smoking, lack of exercise, and high-fat diets--are the major social determinant of the upturn in deaths.

A comparison of heavy metal deposition in selected Eastern European countries using the moss monitoring method, with special emphasis on the ‘Black Triangle’

The paper describes the use of moss analyses to compare heavy-metal pollution in Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Special emphasis is placed on the regions where three countries meet within the area covered by the survey. In the countries participating, samples of Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, Hypnum cupressiforme and Hylocomium splendens, Polytrichum formosum and Dicranum scoparium were collected at a total of 831 sampling points and analyzed for the elements Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn. The results were then presented in the form of coloured contour maps using the geographic information system (GIS) ARC-Info. The values found for heavy metals document the level of technical development in the countries concerned, which is generally characterized by a low standard in respect of emission-reducing systems. Moreover, the heavy-metal concentrations reflect the sources of emissions characteristic of the areas in which they occur. Above all, these are the primary use of coal (both hard coal and lignite) as an energy source, the chemical industry and ferrous- and non-ferrous metal working, which produce considerable emissions of particulate and fly ash, and also the use of leaded petrol. In most cases the moss method made it possible to identify the areas affected by the various industrial locations. The results show an increase in heavy-metal concentrations and higher average levels in the eastern parts of the countries compared. The paper also discusses the possibility of including the ‘three-country triangle’ further east in studies of Eastern Europe on the grounds that it constitutes another ‘Black Triangle’ in addition to the already familiar one.

Traffic safety in Eastern and Western Europe at the beginning of the nineties

The paper provides a brief overview of traffic safety trends and national differences in Western Europe. It becomes clear that considerable differences exist between European OECD countries. National conditions playing a major role in the comparison of international traffic safety such as population density, motorization and mobility are described with differing population‐related risks and fatality rates being evaluated. Next, traffic safety and trends in selected Eastern European countries are compared. It can be concluded that, in comparison with European OECD countries, the risk values in Eastern European countries were quite favourable before the opening‐up of Eastern Europe. Now, with increasing traffic and fatality figures, Eastern Europe countries are approaching the unfavourable end of the scale. Finally, developments in traffic safety in East Germany are evaluated. There is no doubt that the political and social changes in Eastern Europe have had a dramatic impact on road traffic and traffic accident trends with East Germany being especially affected. It may even be assumed that, in contrast to other Eastern European countries, East Germany is experiencing these changes over a comparatively short period in time. The data provided for Western European countries and for East Germany are taken from the OECD‐IRTAD‐International Road Traffic and Accident Database.