Trunk Segments Research Articles

A comparison of axial trunk rotation during bipedal walking between humans and Japanese macaques

Human walking involves out-of-phase axial rotations of the thorax and pelvis. It has long been believed that this rotational capability is a distinctive feature of the genus Homo. However, Thompson et al. (2015) showed that chimpanzees also counter-rotate their thorax relative to the pelvis during bipedal walking, which raised questions regarding the origins and development of this characteristic. In this study, we measured the axial rotation of the trunk during bipedal walking in humans and macaques to investigate if intra-trunk axial rotations are observed in non-hominoid primate species. We collected three-dimensional trunk kinematic data during bipedal walking in six humans and five Japanese macaques. The human subjects walked on a treadmill, and the animal subjects walked on a 5-m runway. During walking, the positions of cluster markers, which defined trunk segments, were recorded by multiple video cameras. Segmental xyz coordinates were digitized, and transverse rotations were calculated using motion analysis software. Although trunk rotations in the global coordinate system were greater in macaques than in humans, the intra-trunk rotation and range of motion showed a similar pattern in the two species. Thoracic rotation relative to the pelvis during bipedal walking is not unique to the hominid lineage but rather a characteristic generated by the mechanical requirements of bipedal walking. The fact that the range of motion of counter rotation is similar in these species infers that an optimal range of rotation exists for bipedal walking.

Changes in coordination and variability during running as a function of head stability demands.

The purpose of this study was to identify changes in segment/joint coordination and coordination variability in running with increasing head stability requirements. Fifteen strides from twelve recreational runners while running on a treadmill at their preferred speed were collected. Head stability demands were manipulated through real-time visual feedback that required head-gaze orientation to be contained within boxes of different sizes, ranging from 21 to 3 degrees of visual angle in 3-degree decrements. Coordination patterns and coordination variability were assessed between head and trunk segments, hip and knee joints, and knee and ankle joints in the three cardinal planes, respectively. Mean coupling angles and the standard deviation of the coupling angles at each individual point of the stance phase were calculated using a modified vector coding technique and circular statistics. As head stability demands increased, transverse plane head-trunk coordination was more anti-phase and showed increased head‑leading and decreased trunk‑leading patterns; for the lower extremity, there was increased in-phase and decreased anti-phase sagittal plane coordination. Increased head stability demands also resulted in an increase in coordination variability for both upper body and lower extremity couplings during the second half of the stance phase. Overall, the results provide evidence that coordinative adaptations to increasing head stability demands occur throughout the entire body: 1) through more independent control of the head relative to the trunk; 2) by increasing in-phase coordination between lower extremity joints, and 3) through increased coordination variability in the second half of stance in both upper body segmental and lower extremity joint couplings. These adaptations likely contribute to the reduction of the range of motion of the trunk in vertical direction.

Effect of core muscle exercises on subcutaneous fat percentage of Badminton players

Badminton involves jumping to reach a shuttle at the highest possible point when descending for a better stroke as in a smash and drop shot. Hence the body weight has to be lifted repeatedly against gravity, where the extra mass in the form of fat would be disadvantage. Moreover the fat tends to be localized in the trunk and lower body segments. Core stability is defined in athletic setting as the optimum production, which can transfer and control the force from the centre of the body to the limbs, through stabilization of the position and motion of torso. Core stability exercises are an essential fitness component of badminton players during smashing the shuttlecock through the game.The present study was conducted to assess the impact of core muscle exercises on subcutaneous fat percentage of badminton players. To achieve this purpose Twenty five badminton players were included in the study, whose age ranged from 17-21 years. During training ten core muscle exercises were performed with one minute each exercise and twenty seconds break in between the exercise. This is performed for three sets. This training is continued for 6 days in a week with one session per day for four weeks. The subcutaneous fat percentage at Arms, Trunk, Legs and Whole body was measured using the Omron HBF 375 Karada Scan before and after the training. The obtained pre and post test data were statistically analyzed using the ‘t’ test. Results shows that there is significant difference in the subcutaneous fat percentage at Arms, Trunk, Legs and Whole body of the badminton players.

Loss of intermediate regions of perpendicular body axes contributed to miniaturization of tardigrades.

Tardigrades have a miniaturized body plan. Miniaturization in tardigrades is associated with the loss of several organ systems and an intermediate region of their anteroposterior (AP) axis. However, how miniaturization has affected tardigrade legs is unclear. In arthropods and in onychophorans, the leg gap genes are expressed in regionalized proximodistal (PD) patterns in the legs. Functional studies indicate that these genes regulate growth in their respective expression domains and establish PD identities, partly through mutually antagonistic regulatory interactions. Here, we investigated the expression patterns of tardigrade orthologs of the leg gap genes. Rather than being restricted to a proximal leg region, as in arthropods and onychophorans, we detected coexpression of orthologues of homothorax and extradenticle broadly across the legs of the first three trunk segments in the tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris. We could not identify a dachshund orthologue in tardigrade genomes, a gene that is expressed in an intermediate region of developing legs in arthropods and onychophorans, suggesting that this gene was lost in the tardigrade lineage. We detected Distal-less expression broadly across all developing leg buds in H. exemplaris embryos, unlike in arthropods and onychophorans, in which it exhibits a distally restricted expression domain. The broad expression patterns of the remaining leg gap genes in H. exemplaris legs may reflect the loss of dachshund and the accompanying loss of an intermediate region of the legs in the tardigrade lineage. We propose that the loss of intermediate regions of both the AP and PD body axes contributed to miniaturization of Tardigrada.

Changes In Coordination And Variability During Running As A Function Of Head Stability Demands

Stabilization of the head in space is important during running, but less is known about how individuals accomplish the head-in-space equilibrium through segmental and joint coordinative adaptations. PURPOSE: To identify changes in segment/joint coordination and its variability in running with increasing head stability requirements. METHODS: Fifteen strides from twelve recreational runners (29.67 ± 4.4 years; 1.73 ± 0.08 m; 72.1 ± 13.9 kg) while running on a treadmill at their preferred speed were collected. Head stability demands were manipulated through real-time visual feedback that required head-gaze orientation to maintain within boxes of different sizes, ranging from 21 to 3 degrees of visual angle with 3-degree decrements. Coordination patterns and variability were assessed between head and trunk segments, hip and knee joints, and knee and ankle joints in three cardinal planes, respectively. Mean phase angles and the standard deviation of the phase angles at each individual point of the stance phase were calculated using vector coding and circular statistics. A statistical analysis was performed to detect differences in coordination pattern frequency and waveform of coordination pattern and variability between visual conditions. RESULTS: As head stability demands increased, transverse plane head-trunk coordination was more anti-phase (i.e., segments rotating the opposite direction; 3.3%, p=0.028), and showed increased head-leading (1.7%, p=0.001) and decreased trunk-leading patterns (10.3%, p=0.015); for the lower extremity, there was increased in-phase (hip-knee: 5%, p=0.015; knee-ankle: 6.4%, p=0.010) and decreased anti-phase (hip-knee: 16.7%, p=0.003; knee-ankle: 10.8%, p=0.001) sagittal plane coordination during the second half of the stance phase. An increase in coordination variability was also observed for lower extremity couplings between the hip and knee and knee and ankle joints. CONCLUSION: Overall, the results provide evidence that coordinative adaptations to increasing head stability demands occur throughout the entire body (1) through more independent control of the head relative to the trunk, and (2) by increasing in-phase coordination and variability between lower extremity joints, contributing to the reduction of range of motion in vertical direction.

Insights into mud dragon morphology (Kinorhyncha, Allomalorhagida): myoanatomy and neuroanatomy of Dracoderes abei and Pycnophyes ilyocryptus

Comprehensive morphological investigations covering the diversity of metazoan lineages are needed to obtain a complete picture of organ system evolution. Despite the increased amount of studies on lesser-known phyla during the last decades, the gap in knowledge for these lineages is still remarkable. This is the case for kinorhynchs, or mud dragons, where only a few genera, mainly belonging to the major clade Cyclorhagida, have undergone detailed morphological examinations. Here, we explore the neuroanatomy and myoanatomy in the other major clade, Allomalorhagida, through studies of Dracoderes abei and Pycnophyes ilyocryptus by immunochemistry, CLSM, and computational 3D reconstruction. The current phylogenetic position of Dracoderes as a sister group to all the remaining allomalorhagids makes it a key taxon for understanding the evolution of organ systems within Kinorhyncha. Clear segmental arrangement of muscles and nerves was found in the trunk of D. abei and P. ilyocryptus, excluding modifications observed in the posteriormost segments. When comparing current and previous studies of allomalorhagids and cyclorhagids, the nervous system shows a conserved pattern across kinorhynchs, while the musculature shows significant variation among genera. Segmentation in kinorhynchs is restricted to the trunk, including mesoderm (muscles) and ectoderm derivated structures (nerves and glands). The nervous system shows a segmental arrangement in the first eight trunk segments, whereas the last three segments show some deviating arrangements most likely related to a post-hatching development of these segments. The presence of non-segmental trunk muscles is interpreted as adaptations for increased introvert motility and trunk flexibility.

Peak horizontal ground reaction forces and impulse correlate with segmental energy flow in youth baseball pitchers

The purpose of this study was to determine associations between horizontal ground reaction force (GRF) kinetics and energy flow (EF) variables in youth baseball players. Twenty-four youth baseball players pitched fastballs in an indoor laboratory while motion capture and force plate data were collected. Horizontal GRF variables were extracted (peak GRF and GRF impulse) while EF was calculated by integrating magnitudes of mechanical powers transferred into and out of the pelvis, trunk, and arm segments via joint force power (JFP) and joint moment power (JMP) components. Peak propulsive GRF of the drive (back) leg correlated with EF into proximal segments, whereas peak braking GRF of the stride (lead) leg correlated with EF into distal segments. Furthermore, peak GRF of the drive leg and GRF impulse of both legs correlated with the JFP components of EF into the pelvis and trunk segments. In contrast, peak GRF and GRF impulse of the stride leg both correlated with the JMP components of EF into the arm segment. These results suggest that horizontal GRF impulse from the drive and stride leg contribute to EF between major segments of the lower and upper extremity. In addition, these results also suggest that propulsion kinetics of the drive leg play a role in transferring linear power via the pelvis and trunk segments in the throwing direction of the pitch, whereas braking kinetics of the stride leg play a role in creating rotational power that is transferred between the trunk and arm segment via the shoulder joint.

The post‐embryonic ontogeny of the early Cambrian trilobite Estaingia bilobata from South Australia: trunk development and phylogenetic implications

AbstractTrilobites are one of the most diverse and abundant fossil groups from the early Palaeozoic, and as such are useful for answering important questions about early animal evolution, including developmental processes. Ontogenetic information for a large number of trilobite species has been published, but cases where multiple articulated specimens are known across the full range of developmental stages are rare. The early Cambrian (Series 2, Stage 4) Emu Bay Shale biota from Kangaroo Island (South Australia) is numerically dominated by trilobites, particularly articulated specimens of the ellipsocephaloid Estaingia bilobata, which are present in densities of >600 individuals per square metre on certain bedding planes. Here we describe the essentially complete post‐embryonic ontogenetic series of E. bilobata from the Emu Bay Shale, and investigate patterns of growth relating to articulation and segmentation in this early Cambrian arthropod. Estaingia bilobata exhibits the hypoprotomeric mode of growth, with the epimorphic phase (the cessation of trunk segment generation) reached prior to the onset of the holaspid period. The meraspid pygidium had an extended equilibrium period in which anterior segment release into the thorax was matched by subterminal segment generation. Previously undocumented morphological features of E. bilobata, including the hypostome and bispinose pleural tips in holaspides, are also described. The growth characteristics and morphological features of E. bilobata documented herein strengthen close phylogenetic relationships between the Estaingiidae, Ellipsocephalidae and Xystriduridae.

How does normal variability in trunk flexion affect lower limb muscle activity during walking?

A large proportion of the mass of the body is contained within the trunk segment. Therefore, small changes in the inclination of this segment have the potential to influence the direction of the ground reaction force and alter lower limb joint moments and muscle activation patterns during walking. The aim of this study was to investigate if variability in sagittal trunk inclination in healthy participants is associated with differences in lower limb biomechanics. Gait analysis data was collected on 41 healthy participants during walking. Two groups were defined based on habitual trunk flexion angle during normal walking, a forward lean group (n=18) and a backward lean group (n=17). Lower limb moments, muscle activation patterns and co-contraction levels were compared between the two groups using independent t-tests. The forward lean group walked with 5° more trunk flexion than the backward lean group. This difference was associated with a larger peak hip moment (effect size=0.7) and higher activation of the lateral gastrocnemius (effect size =0.6) and the biceps femoris (effect size =0.7) muscles. The forward lean group also exhibited greater co-contraction in late stance (effect size =0.7). This is the first study to demonstrate that small differences in trunk flexion are associated with pronounced alterations in the activation of the lateral knee flexor muscles. This is important because people with knee osteoarthritis have been observed to walk with increased trunk flexion. It is possible that increased sagittal trunk inclination may be associated with elevated joint loads in people with knee osteoarthritis.

Effect of changing water depth on muscle activity and motion kinematics during sit-to-stand motion

BackgroundSit-to-stand (STS) movement is a fundamental activity in daily life. Studies have examined the effect of water depth during aquatic exercise; however, no investigation has examined the effect of water depth on STS movements. Research questionThis study examined whether changing water depth affected muscle activity and motion kinematics during the STS movement. MethodsEleven participants performed the STS movement on the ground (land) and at different water depths (1.0-m [deep] and 0.6-m [shallow]) at a self-determined pace. Lower extremity and trunk muscle activity, lower extremity joint angle, and trunk segment inclination angle were measured. Mean muscle activity during STS movement, initial and final postures, and range of motion of each angle was evaluated. Correlations of a normalised time-series pattern of electromyography and motion kinematics measures between land and shallow (land-shallow) and between land and deep (land-deep) were investigated. ResultsThe rectus femoris was more active in shallow than in deep water STS movement but less than that in land STS. Other muscles showed no significant differences between shallow and land STS movement. Correlation of the time series pattern in the tibialis anterior, rectus femoris, and erector spinae muscles was higher in the land-shallow than the land-deep STS. The trunk showed more forward inclination in the shallow STS than the land but less than the deep. Correlation of the time series pattern in the hip joint and trunk inclination angles was higher in the land-shallow STS than in the land-deep STS. SignificanceSTS exercise in the shallow water depth reduced muscle load for the knee extensor but not for other muscles. The muscle activity pattern showed a higher correlation between the land STS and shallow water than deep. Sitting posture becomes upright when the water depth decreases, but a similar motion pattern could be attained regardless of water depth.

Study on the Pauropoda (Myriapoda) from Tibet, China - Part II: New species and new record of the genus Samarangopus.

The pauropod family Eurypauropodidae Ryder, 1879 is recorded from Tibet, China for the first time. In this study, a new species Samarangopus zhongisp. nov. is described and illustrated from Motuo County, southeastern Tibet of China. It is distinguished from other species in this genus by having one pair of spiniform appendages on the sternum of the last trunk segment, 28–34 marginal protuberances on tergite I, the distal quarter of bothriotricha T3 golf-club-shaped, and the leaf-shaped seta st on tergum of pygidium. In addition, Samarangopus canalis Scheller, 2009 is newly recorded from China.

Wearable Inertial Sensor System Towards Daily Human Kinematic Gait Analysis: Benchmarking Analysis to MVN BIOMECH.

This paper presents a cost- and time-effective wearable inertial sensor system, the InertialLAB. It includes gyroscopes and accelerometers for the real-time monitoring of 3D-angular velocity and 3D-acceleration of up to six lower limbs and trunk segment and sagittal joint angle up to six joints. InertialLAB followed an open architecture with a low computational load to be executed by wearable processing units up to 200 Hz for fostering kinematic gait data to third-party systems, advancing similar commercial systems. For joint angle estimation, we developed a trigonometric method based on the segments’ orientation previously computed by fusion-based methods. The validation covered healthy gait patterns in varying speed and terrain (flat, ramp, and stairs) and including turns, extending the experiments approached in the literature. The benchmarking analysis to MVN BIOMECH reported that InertialLAB provides more reliable measures in stairs than in flat terrain and ramp. The joint angle time-series of InertialLAB showed good waveform similarity (>0.898) with MVN BIOMECH, resulting in high reliability and excellent validity. User-independent neural network regression models successfully minimized the drift errors observed in InertialLAB’s joint angles (NRMSE < 0.092). Further, users ranked InertialLAB as good in terms of usability. InertialLAB shows promise for daily kinematic gait analysis and real-time kinematic feedback for wearable third-party systems.

Treatment of vertebrobasilar insufficiency

This article provides an up-to-date literature review on the role of pathological changes in the extracranial, trunk segments of the vertebral arteries (VA) in the development of chronic and progressive vertebrobasilar insufficiency (VBI). Improving methodology of differentiated reconstructive interventions for VA stenosis based on specifically determined vascular territory with application of microsurgery instruments and minimally invasive technologies has made it possible to determine that all other conditions that could lead to the formation of VBI should be excluded in patients with this clinical picture during the planning of arterial reconstruction, and possible outflow pathways and reactivity of the arteries of the vertebrobasilar territory should be determined.

The influence of lateral stabilization on walking performance and balance control in neurologically-intact and post-stroke individuals

BackgroundIndividuals post-stroke have an increased risk of falling, which can lead to injuries and reduced quality of life. This increased fall risk can be partially attributed to poorer balance control, which has been linked to altered post-stroke gait kinematics (e.g. an increased step width). The application of lateral stabilization to the pelvis reduces step width among neurologically-intact young and older adults, suggesting that lateral stabilization reduces the need for active frontal plane balance control. This study sought to determine if lateral stabilization is effective at improving common measures of gait performance and dynamic balance in neurologically-intact and post-stoke individuals who responded to the stabilization by reducing their step width. MethodsGait performance was assessed by foot placement and propulsion symmetry while dynamic balance was assessed by peak-to-peak range of frontal plane whole body angular momentum (HR) and pelvis and trunk sway. FindingsControls and post-stroke Responders who reduced their step width in response to stabilization also reduced their mediolateral pelvis sway, but did not exhibit changes in gait performance. Contrary to expectations, both groups exhibited an increased HR, possibly indicative of decreased balance control. This increase was the result of increased relative velocity between the pelvis and head, arms and trunk segment. InterpretationThese results suggest that a reduction in pelvis motion alone, as opposed to relative motion between the pelvis and upper body, may increase HR, decrease balance control and diminish gait performance. This finding has important implications for locomotor therapies that may seek to reduce pelvis motion.

Low back pain affects coordination between the trunk segments but not variability during running

This study aimed to analyze the coordination and variability between the thorax, lumbar, and pelvis segments in runners with chronic low back pain group (LBPG) and matched control group (CG). Twenty-six recreational runners were evaluated on a treadmill at 3.3 m/s. The coordination of the pelvis–lumbar and lumbar–thorax in all three planes and between the transverse and frontal plane of the lumbar segment were evaluated using the vector coding technique. Coordination was analyzed via histograms with the percentage of each pattern and the coupling angle during the cycle. The variability coordination was calculated from the angular deviation between the cycles. Differences were observed in the coordination patterns and in the coupling angle during the cycle. Between the pelvis–lumbar in the frontal plane, the LBPG (x¯ = 50.6% (SD = 10.7)) presented more in-phase pattern than the CG (38.6% (8.7; P = 0.05). For the lumbar–thorax, differences occurred in all planes. Between the frontal–transverse plane of the lumbar segment, the LBPG (27.6% (7.9)) presented more in-phase pattern than the CG (38.6% (8.7); P = 0.02). The variability did not demonstrate the differences between the groups; these differences were observed in coordination between the lumbar and adjacent segments in all planes. The model of rigid segments and the coordination analyses were sensitive to detect these differences, and the presence of more in-phase patterns could be related to the protection mechanism in order to avoid painful movements.

Relationship between segmental trunk control and gross motor development in typically developing infants aged from 4 to 12\u2009months: a pilot study

BackgroundTrunk control is generally considered to be related to gross motor development. However, this assumption has not been validated with clinical data. This pilot study was the first of its kind to examine the longitudinal development of segmental trunk control and gross motor development from 4 to 12 months of age in typically developing full-term infants.MethodsA convenience cohort of 20 healthy full-term infants (mean gestation = 39.0 weeks, SD 1.2; mean birthweight = 2975.0 g, SD 297.0; males = 10) was recruited. All study infants were tested and scored monthly by independent assessors using the Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control and the Alberta Infant Motor Scale from 4 to 12 months of age.ResultsA developmental trend of segmental trunk control was found in the infants. Static vertical upright trunk control developed prior to active and reactive control. Statistically significant correlations were found between trunk control status and gross motor development mainly in prone and sitting positions from 8 months of age onwards (all p < 0.004, Spearman’s r ranged from 0.644 to 0.798).ConclusionsThis pilot study provides preliminary clinical evidence to support the inter-dependency between vertical upright trunk control and gross motor development in young infants, particularly as upright functional skills are gained. This suggests that a dual focus on training upright trunk control alongside gross motor skills could be of benefit in the treatment of infants with movement disorders.

Evaluation of Pest Control Based on Morphological Character Variation on 20 Varieties and Genetic Variation Based on RAPD of Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) in Indonesia

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is the main crop of sugar and one of the main resources for consumption of Indonesian society. Government of Indonesia, which supports self-sufficiency targeting enough amount of sugar, high quality and low price in Indonesia. Indonesian Sweetener and Fibre Crops Research Institute (ISFRI) Malang are one of research site agriculture in Indonesia which specialize in sugarcane start from various researches to increase sugar cane production including sugarcane cultivation. Constraints that often encountered farmers in the process of sugarcane cultivation are a disruption of pest disease. Therefore, early prevention as an effort to control pests and diseases in sugarcane crops needed. Aims of this research were to find character of high quality sugar cane as a breeder of new varieties that are superior and resistant to pests and to analysis genetic variation of 20 varieties sugarcane based on RAPD molecular marker. This research was conducted in KP Karangploso, ISFRI Malang, East Java. The method used is observation and identification on germplasm of sugarcane; each variety was analysed descriptively and numerical phenetic with the similarity of simple matching coefficient (Ssm) and simple Jaccard coefficient (Sj). The character of each variety of germplasm had its own advantages. Genetic variation based on RAPD of 20 varieties shown taxonomical relation between varieties. The results showed that 20 varieties of characterized sugarcane morphology that expected tolerant of pest were in the upstream form of the cylindrical trunk segment, the moderate stem borders, the thick stem wick coat, the thick dorsal leaf hair, and the leaf exfoliate difficult. Variety of sugarcane number accession 475 SOFF 1208 shown the best pest tolerant morphologically and has the lowest percentage of pest attack to 0.29%. The result of ssm and sj shown that breeders suggested in the form of new varieties that are superior and resistant to pests according to most tolerant variety 475 SOFF 1208 are 350 SOFF 1082, 357 SOFF 1089, 360 SOFF 1092, 368 SOFF 1100, 454 SOFF 1186, 473 SOFF 1205, and 476 SOFF 1208.

Fully automated image-based estimation of postural point-features in children with cerebral palsy using deep learning.

The aim of this study was to provide automated identification of postural point-features required to estimate the location and orientation of the head, multi-segmented trunk and arms from videos of the clinical test ‘Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control’ (SATCo). Three expert operators manually annotated 13 point-features in every fourth image of 177 short (5–10 s) videos (25 Hz) of 12 children with cerebral palsy (aged: 4.52 ± 2.4 years), participating in SATCo testing. Linear interpolation for the remaining images resulted in 30 825 annotated images. Convolutional neural networks were trained with cross-validation, giving held-out test results for all children. The point-features were estimated with error 4.4 ± 3.8 pixels at approximately 100 images per second. Truncal segment angles (head, neck and six thoraco-lumbar–pelvic segments) were estimated with error 6.4 ± 2.8°, allowing accurate classification (F1 > 80%) of deviation from a reference posture at thresholds up to 3°, 3° and 2°, respectively. Contact between arm point-features (elbow and wrist) and supporting surface was classified at F1 = 80.5%. This study demonstrates, for the first time, technical feasibility to automate the identification of (i) a sitting segmental posture including individual trunk segments, (ii) changes away from that posture, and (iii) support from the upper limb, required for the clinical SATCo.

Appendicular anatomy of the artiopod Emeraldella brutoni from the middle Cambrian (Drumian) of western Utah.

The non-biomineralized artiopod Emeraldella brutoni Stein, Church & Robison, from the middle Cambrian (Drumian) Wheeler Formation in Utah represents the only confirmed occurrence of the genus Emeraldella outside of the stratigraphically older (Wuliuan) Burgess Shale Konservat-Lagerstätte in British Columbia. The hitherto known sole specimen of this species is preserved in dorsal view and lacks critical information on the ventral appendages. Here, we redescribe E. brutoni based on a new completely articulated specimen that illustrates the appendage organization in exceptional detail. The main body consists of a cephalic region covered by a semicircular head shield, a trunk including 10 tergites with expanded pleurae plus a cylindrical terminal segment, and a long articulated tailspine. The head carries a pair of elongate and flexible antennae, a pair of lateral eyes, and three pairs of post-antennal appendages. We report the presence of eyes in Emeraldella for the first time. The first post-antennal limb solely consists of an endopod with well-developed paired spiniform endites. The remaining cephalic appendages and those associated with all but the last trunk segments possess exopods terminating in paddle-shaped, distal lobes fringed with robust setae. The cylindrical terminal segment bears a pair of posteriorly oriented caudal flaps reminiscent of trunk exopods, and a styliform, possibly uniarticulate tailspine longer than the main body. The new data on E. brutoni suggests an exopodal origin for the paired caudal structures in Vicissicaudata, and improve our understanding of the fundamental organization of this major clade within Artiopoda.

Is Segmental Trunk Control Related to Gross Motor Performance in Healthy Preterm and Full-Term Infants?

The authors’ aim was to verify the correlation between segmental trunk control and gross motor performance in healthy preterm (PT) and full-term (FT) infants aged 6 and 7 months and to verify if there are differences between groups. All infants were assessed at 6 and 7 months by means of Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control (SATCo) to identify the exact level of segmental trunk control and Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) to measure gross motor performance. A significant correlation between segmental trunk control and gross motor performance was found in healthy PT infants at 7 months and FT infants at 6 months. PT infants showed a delay on segmental trunk control at 6 and 7 months and in supported standing posture at 6 months compared with FT infants. Segmental trunk control and gross motor performance showed an important relationship in healthy PT and FT infants, mainly in sitting posture.