Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory Research Articles

Response of lithium formate EPR dosimeters at photon energies relevant to the dosimetry of brachytherapy

To investigate experimentally the energy dependence of the detector response of lithium formate EPR dosimeters for photon energies below 1 MeV relative to that at 60Co energies. High energy photon beams are used in calibrating dosimeters for use in brachytherapy since the absorbed dose to water can be determined with high accuracy in such beams using calibrated ion chambers and standard dosimetry protocols. In addition to any differences in mass-energy absorption properties between water and detector, variations in radiation yield (detector response) with radiation quality, caused by differences in the density of ionization in the energy imparted (LET), may exist. Knowledge of an eventual deviation in detector response with photon energy is important for attaining high accuracy in measured brachytherapy dose distributions. Lithium formate EPR dosimeters were irradiated to known levels of air kerma in 25-250 kV x-ray beams and in 137Cs and 60Co beams at the Swedish Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory. Conversions from air kerma free in air into values of mean absorbed dose to the detectors were made using EGSnrc MC simulations and x-ray energy spectra measured or calculated for the actual beams. The signals from the detectors were measured using EPR spectrometry. Detector response (the EPR signal per mean absorbed dose to the detector) relative to that for 60Co was determined for each beam quality. Significant decreases in the relative response ranging from 5% to 6% were seen for x-ray beams at tube voltages < or = 180 kV. No significant reduction in the relative response was seen for 137Cs and 250 kV x rays. When calibrated in 60Co or MV photon beams, corrections for the photon energy dependence of detector response are needed to achieve the highest accuracy when using lithium formate EPR dosimeters for measuring absorbed doses around brachytherapy sources emitting photons in the energy range of 20-150 keV such as 169Yb and electronic sources.

Measurement with Hp(10) and H*(10) secondary standard chambers at NILPRP 7 MeV linear accelerator

A secondary standard chamber for measuring the conventionally true value of the personal dose equivalent, Hp(10), was developed by Arckerhold et al. at Physikalisch Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB). This type of chamber together with a secondary standard ionization chamber for direct measurement of ambient dose equivalent, H*(10), both outfitting the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL), were used for area monitoring at the NILPRP 7 MeV Linear Accelerator. Measurement results, for both ICRU operational quantities, are presented in this paper.

Neutron field characterisation of the OB26 CRNA irradiator in view of its use for calibration purposes

The main goal of the present work is to characterise the neutron field of an OB26 irradiation system acquired by the Nuclear Research Center of Algiers for radiation protection purposes. Extensive Monte-Carlo (MC) calculations and measurements using BF(3)- and (3)He-based neutron area dosemeters were performed to estimate the contribution, on the energy neutron spectrum, of each component present in the bunker facility of the Algerian Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL) where the irradiator has been installed. For this purpose, new irradiation configurations based on the (241)Am-Be source placed in the OB 26/2 biological shielding inside its environment have been investigated by MC simulations, and comparison with the ISO spectrum has been performed. During MC simulations, sensitivity analysis has been considered to estimate the effect of several physical parameters on the neutron fluence and dose equivalent rates. In addition, the contribution of the gamma dose equivalent rates to the total neutron dose equivalent rates was estimated for both selected source-detector distances (SDDs) 150 and 200 cm. Finally, a theoretical approach has been adopted, using MCNP5 fluence rates, to estimate the readings of the instruments taking into account their response functions. A low mean difference (12 %) between measured and predicted dose equivalent rates for two selected SDDs has been observed. Overall, the obtained MCNP5 results regarding the actual SSDL irradiation facility are particularly encouraging, but need to be supported by further experimental data.

Calibration of radiation protection area monitoring instruments in Sudan

This article presents results of measurements for the calibration of radiation protection area monitoring instruments carried out during the period 2006–2008 at Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory of Sudan. The work performed included quality assurance measurements, measurements for the dosimeter calibrations and uncertainty analysis. Calibrations were performed using 137Cs gamma ray sources produced by OB 85 and OB 34/1 gamma calibrators producing air kerma rate that ranged from 10 μGy/h to 50 mGy/h. Area monitoring instruments were calibrated in terms of ambient dose equivalent, H*(10) derived using air kerma to ambient dose equivalent conversion coefficients. Results are presented for 78 area monitoring instruments representing most commonly used types in Sudan. Radioactive check source measurements for the reference chamber showed deviation within 1% limit. The accuracy in the beam output measurements was within 5% internationally considered as acceptable. The results highlighted the importance of radiation protection calibrations. Regulations are further need to ensure safety aspect really meet the required international standards.

Performance testing of selected types of electronic personal dosimeters used in Sudan

Measurements were carried out for calibration and performance testing of a set of 10 electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs) at the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory of Sudan. Calibrations were carried out at three X-ray beam qualities described in ISO standard 4037 in addition to 137Cs and 60Co gamma ray beams. The experimental was performed with EPDs mounted on ICRU Slab phantom. X-ray and γ-ray beams were characterized in terms of air kerma free-in-air which were converted to the known delivered personal dose equivalent, Hp(10) using appropriate the air kerma to personal dose equivalent conversion coefficients. Dosimeters tested showed excellent energy and angular response and relative error of indication within the recommended limit for photon energies from 65 keV to 1.25 MeV. The study showed encouraging results for using electronic dosimeters in personal dosimetry.

Implementation of water calorimetry in a 180 MeV scanned pulsed proton beam including an experimental determination of kQ for a Farmer chamber

Water calorimetric measurements have been performed in a 180 MeV scanned pulsed proton beam and the absorbed dose determined has been compared with the results obtained using two NE2571 Farmer chambers and the IAEA TRS-398 code of practice. The depth of measurement in water corresponded to a residual range of Rres = 16.5 cm, corresponding to a mean energy of about 150 MeV. Ionization chambers were calibrated in terms of the absorbed dose to water in 60Co at the Swedish Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory, directly traceable to Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. The present experimental investigation has shown that water calorimetry is feasible in a high-energy scanned pulsed proton beam. When comparing the results obtained with water calorimetry and ionometry, the beam quality correction factor, kQ, could be determined for the two NE2571 ionization chambers used. The kQ-factor was found to be 1.032 ± 0.013, which is in good agreement with the factor tabulated in IAEA TRS-398 for this chamber type (1.039 ± 0.018). The present result has also been compared with a previously obtained result in a passively scattered proton beam having similar energy. This comparison yielded a 1.1% deviation, which is not significant considering the combined uncertainties of the two experimental determinations of kQ. The dominating contribution to the combined uncertainty stems from the correction factor for ion recombination in the scanned proton beam (1%), and further studies are required in order to reduce this uncertainty and reveal any possible differences in the kQ-factor between these two proton beam delivery techniques.

Monte-Carlo investigation of radiation beam quality of the CRNA neutron irradiator for calibration purposes

An irradiation system has been acquired by the Nuclear Research Center of Algiers (CRNA) to provide neutron references for metrology and dosimetry purposes. It consists of an (241)Am-Be radionuclide source of 185 GBq (5Ci) activity inside a cylindrical steel-enveloped polyethylene container with radially positioned beam channel. Because of its composition, filled with hydrogenous material, which is not recommended by ISO standards, we expect large changes in the physical quantities of primary importance of the source compared to a free-field situation. Thus, the main goal of the present work is to fully characterize neutron field of such special delivered set-up. This was conducted by both extensive Monte-Carlo calculations and experimental measurements obtained by using BF(3) and (3)He based neutron area dosimeters. Effects of each component present in the bunker facility of the Algerian Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL) on the energy neutron spectrum have been investigated by simulating four irradiation configurations and comparison to the ISO spectrum has been performed. The ambient dose equivalent rate was determined based upon a correct estimate of the mean fluence to ambient dose equivalent conversion factors at different irradiations positions by means of a 3-D transport code MCNP5. Finally, according to practical requirements established for calibration purposes an optimal irradiation position has been suggested to the SSDL staff to perform, in appropriate manner, their routine calibrations.

Report on EUROMET.RI(I)-K1 and EUROMET.RI(I)-K4 (EUROMET project no. 813): Comparison of air kerma and absorbed dose to water measurements of 60Co radiation beams for radiotherapy

The results of an unprecedented international effort involving 26 countries are reported. The EUROMET.RI(I)-K1 and EUROMET.RI(I)-K4 key comparisons were conducted with the goal of supporting the relevant calibration and measurement capabilities (CMC) planned for publication by the participant laboratories. The measured quantities were the air kerma (Kair) and the absorbed dose to water (Dw) in 60Co radiotherapy beams. The comparison was conducted by the pilot laboratory MKEH (Hungary), in a star-shaped arrangement from January 2005 to December 2008. The calibration coefficients of four transfer ionization chambers were measured using two electrometers. The largest deviation between any two calibration coefficients for the four chambers in terms of air kerma and absorbed dose to water was 2.7% and 3.3% respectively. An analysis of the participant uncertainty budgets enabled the calculation of degrees of equivalence (DoE), in terms of the deviations of the results and their associated uncertainties. As a result of this EUROMET project 813 comparison, the BIPM key comparison database (KCDB) will include eleven new Kair and fourteen new Dw DoE values of European secondary standard dosimetry laboratories (SSDLs), and the KCDB will be updated with the new DoE values of the other participant laboratories. The pair-wise degrees of equivalence of participants were also calculated. In addition to assessing calibration techniques and uncertainty calculations of the participants, these comparisons enabled the experimental determinations of NDw/NKair ratios in the 60Co gamma radiation beam for the four radiotherapy transfer chambers.Main text.To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report.Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/.The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI Section I, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA).

Malaysian participation in the IAEA/WHO postal TLD and postal ionisation chamber intercomparison programmes: analysis of results obtained during 1985-2008

During the years 1985-2008, the Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory of Malaysia (SSDL Malaysia) has participated 37 times in the IAEA/WHO intercomparison programmes. This paper reports an analysis of the intercomparison data and demonstrates that the quality of the SSDL calibration service is well within the limits required by IAEA.

Intercomparison of Personal Dosimetry for Service Providers in Pakistan

An intercomparison exercise for personal dosimetry service providers within Pakistan was conducted by the Health Physics Division of the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology. Participation in the exercise was on voluntary basis. The exercise was carried out to harmonize individual dose monitoring techniques for high energy photons in terms of a new operational quantity, namely personal dose equivalent Hp(10), for personal dosimetry in accordance with the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Each laboratory submitted 25 dosimeters for participation in the intercomparison exercise. Protection level Co and Cs sources were used for irradiation of dosimeters on a water phantom according to International Atomic Energy Agency protocol at the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory. Hp(10) doses for five different dose levels were measured by the participating laboratories. The ratios of measured dose/true dose (Hm/Ht) remained in the range of 0.66 to 1.11 for the Co source and 0.84 to 1.17 for the Cs source. Performance of service providers' laboratories to measure Hp(10) doses was analyzed and evaluated in terms of trumpet curves plotted for photons at a 95% confidence level.

Calibration of reference KAP-meters at SSDL and cross calibration of clinical KAP-meters

Introduction. In the summer of 2007 the secondary standard dosimetry laboratory (SSDL) in Norway established a calibration service for reference air-kerma product meter (KAP-meter). The air-kerma area product, PKA, is a dosimetric quantity that can be directly related to the patient dose and used for risk assessment associated with different x-ray examinations. The calibration of reference KAP-meters at the SSDL gives important information on parameters influencing the calibration factor for different types of KAP-meters. The use of reference KAP-meters calibrated at the SSDL is an easy and reliable way to calibrate or verify the PKA indicated by the x-ray equipment out in the clinics. Material and methods. Twelve KAP-meters were calibrated at the SSDL by use of the substitution method at five diagnostic radiation qualities (RQRs). Results. The calibration factors varied from 0.94 to 1.18. The energy response of the individual KAP-meters varied by a total of 20% between the different RQRs and the typical chamber transmission factors ranged from 0.78 to 0.91. Discussion. It is important to use a calibrated reference KAP-meter and a harmonised calibration method in the PKA calibration in hospitals. The obtained uncertainty in the PKA readings is comparable with other calibration methods if the information in the calibration certificate is correct used, corrections are made and proper positioning of the KAP-chamber is performed. This will ensure a reliable estimate of the patient dose and a proper optimisation of conventional x-ray examinations and interventional procedures.

TLD Postal Dose Quality Audit Intercomparison for Megavolts Photon Beam of Radiotherapy Centers in Bangladesh

A postal dose intercomparison program based on the thermo-luminescence dosimeter (TLD) was carried in order to investigate and reduce uncertainties involved in the measurement of absorbed dose, and to improve the accuracy of dose measurement at different radiotherapy centers in Bangladesh. The intercomparison program was organized by the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL) with the assistance of the IAEA/WHO postal dose intercomparison network. A set of three TLDs (encapsulated LiF powder) including a control was sent to the participating radiotherapy centers for irradiation with 2 Gy of absorbed dose to water. The measurements were made for 60Co and megavolts X-ray beam. Thirteen beams in total were checked. Deviation of ±5% between stated and evaluated dose was considered to be acceptable for 60Co and 6MV X-ray beam. The result of 60Co beam of two centers exceeds the acceptance limit. The maximum deviation was -8.6% with an uncertainty of 1.8% i.e., the ratio of intercomparison dose to locally measured dose was 1.09. We discussed the immediate and corrective action to minimize the discrepancies. For ten 60Co beam measurements, a mean valued of the ratio of intercomparison dose to locally stated dose was 0.988 with a standard deviation of 0.031. The importance of a proper ongoing quality assurance program is essential in maintaining the consistency and the uniformity of absorbed dose measurement for the precision dose delivery to the patient.

Audit on source strength determination for HDR and PDR 192Ir brachytherapy in Sweden

Background and purpose To investigate the status of source strength determination in terms of reference air kerma rate ( RAKR) for HDR and PDR 192Ir brachytherapy in Sweden. Materials and methods RAKR was determined in each of the 14 Swedish afterloaders, using calibrated equipment from the Swedish Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory. Results Values of RAKR from the external audit, the hospitals and vendors agreed within the uncertainty limits guaranteed by the vendors. Conclusions The accuracy in RAKR determination has increased over the last years as a result of increased availability of interpolation standards for HDR 192Ir and the increased use of robust well-type ion chambers designed for brachytherapy. It is recommended to establish a ratio between the RAKR value from own measurements at the hospital and that of the vendor since such a ratio embeds constant systematic differences due to e.g. varying traceability and therefore has the potential of being less uncertain than the RAKR alone. Traceability to primary standards for HDR 192Ir sources will in the future significantly decrease the uncertainty in RAKR of 192Ir brachytherapy.

Out-door radiation level measurement in Abeokuta, Nigeria, by thermoluminescent dosimetry

Environmental radiation level and its spatial variability have been investigated at 34 locations in Abeokuta and environs using the technique of thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) with LiF phosphor calibrated with a 137Cs standard source operating at a Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL). The human dose equivalent due to outdoor exposure in the city range between 0.19 and 1.64 mSv per year with a mean of 0.45 mSv/y and standard deviation of 0.27 mSv/y. Oke-Sabo area of the city has the least radiation dose rate while Obantoku area has the upper limit. Taking this as the profile of integrated natural background radiation dose rate from all sources in the city and comparing with measurements of terrestrial radiation dose in a previous survey, the mean dose rate from extraterrestrial (cosmic) radiation has been estimated to be about 0.18 mSv/y in Abeokut Keywords: Environmental radiation, thermoluminescent dosimetry, Abeokuta, outdoor Radiation exposure. Nigerian Journal of Physics Vol. 18 (1) 2006: pp. 121-126

Characteristics of a 85Kr beta-particle source applied in Series 1 reference irradiations of TMDIS-1 direct ion storage dosemeters

Characteristics necessary to specify an ISO 6980 Series 1 reference radiation field were determined for a commercially available 85Kr beta-particle source, using a BEAM EGS4 Monte Carlo code. The characteristics include residual maximum beta energy, E(res), and the uniformity of the dose rate over the calibration area. The E(res) and the uniformity were also determined experimentally, using an extrapolation ionization chamber (EC) and a 0.2 cm3 parallel plate ionization chamber, respectively. The depth-dose curve measured with the EC gave a value 0.62 MeV for the E(res). Series 2 90Sr + 90Y and Series 1(85) Kr beta-particle sources calibrated for H(p)(0.07) at the secondary standard dosimetry laboratory (SSDL) of STUK were used to determine the energy and angular responses of DIS-1 direct ion storage dosemeters. The averaged zero angle H(p)(0.07) responses to the 90Sr + 90Y and 85Kr reference radiations were 135 and 80%, respectively. The responses were normalized to 100%, H(p)(0.07) response to 137Cs photon radiation.

Analysis of Calibration Coefficients of Plane-Parallel Markus Type Ionization Chambers Calibrated in Co-60 and Electron Beams

Analysis of Calibration Coefficients of Plane-Parallel Markus Type Ionization Chambers Calibrated in Co-60 and Electron Beams The Polish Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory is part of the IAEA/WHO network of such laboratories. The SSDLs are usually not equipped with accelerators generating high energy electron beams for calibration of dosimeters. The access to medical accelerators is seriously limited due to the heavy patient load. Therefore attempts are made to use Co-60 beams for calibration of plane parallel chambers and calculate the calibration coefficients for other radiation quality, the high energy electron beam. The Markus ionization chambers, most frequently used in Poland, were analyzed in this study. The material was composed of 36 plane parallel chambers, from 20 radiotherapy centers in Poland, calibrated at the Polish SSDL during the period of 2003-2006. Before actual calibration, a number of chamber parameters were tested: long term stability, dark current, chamber sensitivity, non-linearity of dosimeter readings. Each chamber was calibrated in two different radiation beams: a) Varian 2300 accelerator 22 MeV electron beams, beam output 1.2 cGy/MU at 300 MU/min; b) Co-60 Theratron 780/403 unit with a Cobalt-60 source of 155700 GBq (4208 Ci) activity as of 6.01.2006. A reference dosimeter Keithley Instruments Inc. 6517-A with cylindrical ionization chambers Nuclear Enterprises Technology Limited type 2571 was used as the reference standard. The methods of IAEA Code of Practice for Dosimetry TRS 398 were adopted. The long term stability was analyzed on basis of calibration coefficients of 23 Markus chambers calibrated several times during the period 1994-2002. Very small differences in calibration coefficients were detected between the two calibration methods used. They ranged between -0.3 to +0.5%, the mean value being 0.1%. A very good long term stability of calibration coefficients of Markus chambers, related to the mean value over the 7 year period, ranging between -0.5 to +0.3%, was recorded. Very small differences in the results for the two calibration methods, confirmed by small standard deviations observed, indicate that these two calibration methods in the case of Markus-type plane parallel chambers may be used alternatively.

Study of dose rate profile at sample disks in a Risø OSL single-grain attachment system

The spatial variation of dose rate from a 90Sr/ 90Y calibration source mounted on a Risø equipment TL-DA-15 was investigated. Six disks accommodating single grains of α - Al 2 O 3 :C were irradiated at the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory (SSDL) at GSF to a uniform photon radiation field. The corresponding single-grain OSL signals of each grain were then compared with those obtained after the irradiation of the disks with the built-in beta source of the equipment. Additionally, the irradiation system was modelled to perform a Monte Carlo calculation assuming a homogeneous source. A continuous drop of the beta dose rate with increasing radial distance from the centre of the disk was observed in the experiments, indicating that grains located in the central part of the disk absorbed a higher dose than those placed in the outer region of the hole matrix. This experimental dose profile pattern was also confirmed by the results of the Monte Carlo calculation. It can therefore be concluded that different calibration factors, depending on the grain location, should be applied in order to improve the reliability of equivalent dose assessment using single-grain OSL measurements.

Results of the regional intercomparison exercise for the determination of operational quantity HP(10) in Latin America

Several intercomparison exercises were organised by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on the determination of operational quantities at the regional or interregional basis. In the Latin American region an intercomparison for the determination of the operational quantity Hp(10) was completed mid-2004, as a follow-up to previous exercises carried out during the 1990s. Eighteen individual external monitoring services from nineteen Member States participated in the first phase. The second phase grouped 15 services that had participated in the first phase. Dosemeter irradiations in photon beams were done by four Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratories (SSDLs) of the region. The preparation of this exercises involved an audit by the IAEA SSDL, where reference irradiations were provided to all participants for verification of their systems. During the first phase (2002-2003) only 9 out of 18 services met the performance requirements for such monitoring services. Necessary corrective actions and procedure verification were implemented. During the second phase (2004) 11 out of 15 services fulfilled the performance criteria. This intercomparison shows that there has been improvement in the second phase and most participants demonstrated a satisfactory performance of the quantity tested.

Study of the influence of phantom material and size on the calibration of ionization chambers in terms of absorbed dose to water

In the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) code of practice (TRS 398) and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine's dosimetry protocol (TG‐51), full‐scatter water phantoms are recommended for the determination of the absorbed dose for both photon and electron beams and, consequently, for the calibration of the user's ionization chambers. This procedure is applied in the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory, where the calibration is performed on a C60o gamma beam, in comparison with reference chambers whose absorbed dose‐to‐water calibration coefficients, ND,w, are known. In this work, we present the results of the calibration of 10 Farmer‐like ionization chambers calibrated in three water phantoms (sizes 20×20×15 cm3, 30×30×30 cm3, and 35×35×37 cm3) and two plastic phantoms (size 20×20×20 cm3) polymethyl methacrlyate (PMMA) and polystyrene). Calibrations are performed by the substitution method using an ionization chamber whose ND,w has been supplied by the IAEA's reference laboratory. It is shown that the results, expressed as the percentage ratio of the calibration coefficient in a given phantom to that of the standard IAEA phantom, is less than 0.35% for all investigated chambers, and that the standard deviation of the mean of the ND,w calibration coefficients determined in all five phantoms is less than 0.06%, except for one nylon‐walled ionization chamber, where the observed 0.34% value could be explained by the hygroscopic properties of nylon. Furthermore, a chamber‐to‐chamber dependence of the calibration coefficient has been shown to vary by up to 2.8%. These results emphasize that the phantom dimensions and its material are not sensitive criteria for the calibration of cylindrical ionization chambers in terms of absorbed dose to water. The results also show that generic calibration coefficients could not be considered for a given type of chamber.PACS number: 87.53.Dq

Experimental determination of beam quality factors, kQ, for two types of Farmer chamber in a 10 MV photon and a 175 MeV proton beam

Absorbed doses determined with a sealed water calorimeter operated at 4 °C are compared with the results obtained using ionization chambers and the IAEA TRS-398 code of practice in a 10 MV photon beam (TPR20,10 = 0.734) and a 175 MeV proton beam (at a depth corresponding to the residual range, Rres = 14.7 cm). Three NE 2571 and two FC65-G ionization chambers were calibrated in terms of absorbed-dose-to-water in 60Co at the Swedish secondary standard dosimetry laboratory, directly traceable to the BIPM. In the photon beam quality, calorimetry was found to agree with ionometry within 0.3%, confirming the kQ values tabulated in TRS-398. In contrast, a 1.8% deviation was found in the proton beam at 6 g cm−2 depth, suggesting that the TRS-398 tabulated kQ values for these two ionization chamber types are too high. Assuming no perturbation effect in the proton beam for the ionization chambers, a value for (wair/e)Q of 33.6 J C−1 ± 1.7% (k = 1) can be derived from these measurements. An analytical evaluation of the effect from non-elastic nuclear interactions in the ionization chamber wall indicates a perturbation effect of 0.6%. Including this estimated result in the proton beam would increase the determined (wair/e)Q value by the same amount.