Sea Surface Temperature Values Research Articles

Decadal to interdecadal variability in TEX86 temperature on the inner shelf of the East China Sea over the last 3.7 kyr

To understand the long-term environmental evolution of the East China Sea (ECS) and adjacent areas, the variation in TEX86H-derived sea surface temperature (SST) at site T08 collected from the mud area on the inner continental shelf of the ECS over the last 3725 years was reconstructed. The core-top TEX86H SST is 23.2 °C, close to the annual mean SST (22.9 °C) at site T08. The branched and isoprenoid tetraether (BIT) index, which is a proxy for soil organic matter, ranges from 0.029 to 0.059, indicating that the influence of terrestrial input on the TEX86H SST proxy is negligible. The ratio between glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) GDGT-0 and GDGT-5 (R0/5), which is used to indicate the contribution of methanogenic archaea to the GDGT pool, varies between 0.04 and 0.62, suggesting a minor influence of methanogens on the TEX86H proxy. During the past 3725 years, variation in TEX86H SST can be divided into three periods with an overall increasing trend. During Period I (3725–2500 yr BP), TEX86H SST ranged from 19.0 to 20.6 °C with a mean of 20.1 °C. The values were generally relatively low but with marked fluctuation, attributed to increased input of cold coastal water caused by a strengthened East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) and a weakened Kuroshio Current (KC). During Period II (2500–750 yr BP), after a low-temperature period at 2400–2200 yr BP, TEX86H SST increased gradually from 19.2 to 23.5 °C. During this period, an intensified East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) and a strengthened KC and Taiwan Warm Current (TWWC) transported warm water from low-latitude areas to ECS coastal areas. During Period III (750 yr BP to present), TEX86H SST increased gradually and reached a maximum (24.2 °C) at ∼565 yr BP. Subsequently, TEX86H SST decreased and reached a low value (21.9 °C) at ∼279 yr BP. During the period (<750 yr BP), higher TEX86H SST values were caused mainly by intensified KC, whereas lower values corresponded to the Little Ice Age. Spectral analysis reveals that variation in TEX86H SST exhibits periodicities of 175, 80, and 68 years, consistent with the periodicities of solar activity.

The Role of Sea Surface Temperature Forcing in the Life-Cycle of Mediterranean Cyclones

Air–sea interface processes are highly associated with the evolution and intensity of marine-developed storms. Specifically, in the Mediterranean Sea, the air–ocean temperature deviations have a profound role during the several stages of Mediterranean cyclonic events. Subsequently, this enhances the need for better knowledge and representation of the sea surface temperature (SST). In this work, an analysis of the impact and uncertainty of the SST from different well-known datasets on the life-cycle of Mediterranean cyclones is attempted. Daily SST from the Real Time Global SST (RTG_SST) and hourly SST fields from the Operational SST and Sea Ice Ocean Analysis (OSTIA) and the NEMO ocean circulation model are implemented in the RAMS/ICLAMS-WAM coupled modeling system. For the needs of the study, the Mediterranean cyclones Trixi, Numa, and Zorbas were selected. Numerical experiments covered all stages of their life-cycles (five to seven days). Model results have been analyzed in terms of storm tracks and intensities, cyclonic structural characteristics, and derived heat fluxes. Remote sensing data from the Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals (IMERG) for Global Precipitation Measurements (GPM), Blended Sea Winds, and JASON altimetry missions were employed for a qualitative and quantitative comparison of modeled results in precipitation, maximum surface wind speed, and wave height. Spatiotemporal deviations in the SST forcing rather than significant differences in the maximum/minimum SST values, seem to mainly contribute to the differences between the model results. Considerable deviations emerged in the resulting heat fluxes, while the most important differences were found in precipitation exhibiting spatial and intensity variations reaching 100 mm. The employment of widely used products is shown to result in different outcomes and this point should be taken into consideration in forecasting and early warning systems.

Stable isotopes suggest the location of marine feeding grounds of South European Atlantic salmon in Greenland

AbstractHistorical data on the oceanic distribution and migration routes of southernmost Atlantic salmon Salmo salar populations from Europe are almost non-existent, as no rigorous tagging initiatives have been conducted. Here, we used stable isotope data (δ13C and δ15N) of historic scale collections to identify the potential marine feeding areas of the largest salmon population in the Iberian Peninsula. Data were compared with published datasets from Northern Ireland, Wales, south England, and northeast UK coast, which correspond to series between 15- and 33-year long within the time period from 1958 to 2009. Temporal covariation in sea surface temperature, primary productivity, and δ13C values suggests that feeding areas of Iberian salmon are located around Greenland, both in the Labrador and the Irminger seas. Furthermore, δ13C values of Atlantic salmon from Canadian rivers reported in the literature are similar to those found in individuals from Spanish rivers. Our results suggest that Iberian salmon follow a westerly migration route towards Greenland instead of following the easterly branch of the North Atlantic current into the Norwegian Sea. Characterization of feeding patterns and migration routes might help to understand the causes of ongoing population decline and establish targeted conservation programmes for threatened Iberian salmon.

Radial Distributions of Sea Surface Temperature and Their Impacts on the Rapid Intensification of Typhoon Hato (2017)

As a category-3 typhoon, Hato (2017) experienced the notable rapid intensification (RI) over the hot sea surface before its landfall. The RI process and the influences of local sea surface temperature (SST) patterns on the evolution of Hato were well captured and carefully investigated using a high-resolution air–sea coupled model. To further explore the close relationship between the radial distributions of SST and storm evolution, a sensitive experiment with time-fixed SST was also performed. Results showed that the time-fixed SST experiment produced earlier RI following the rapid core structure adjustment, as higher SST in the core region was found favorable to increasing the near-surface water vapor and latent heat flux. Strong updrafts were thus facilitated inside the eyewall, inducing the eyewall contraction and RI of the storm. In contrast, cooler SST inside the core region should account for the delay of RI as the intense convection located in the outer rainbands, inhibiting the transportation of energy into the inner-core. Momentum tendency analysis also proves these mechanisms. Therefore, not only the value of SST but also its radial-gradient, plays an important role in the evolution of tropical cyclones, highlighting the need for an advanced air–sea coupled model.

Existence of ‘mini-break’ like condition during early Indian monsoon onset years

In the context of increasing probability of advancement in onset date of Indian Summer Monsoon during recent years, precipitation and circulation features of early monsoon onset events are investigated in detail using reanalysis data and model simulations. During the onset pentad (± 2 days from the onset day), an anomalous increase in precipitation is observed over the west coast of peninsular India and Bay of Bengal during early onset years compared to normal onset years. The monsoon low level jet (LLJ) also becomes stronger during the onset pentad of early onset years particularly over the southern peninsular India. However, after a week from the onset day of early years, precipitation is considerably decreased and the LLJ become weaker. Moreover, convection over the eastern Arabian Sea and western peninsular India suppresses during that period which in turn inhibits the systematic northward propagation of monsoon rainbands. This induces a ‘mini break’ like condition immediately after a week from the onset day during early onset years. Analysis of the sea surface temperature (SST) shows that, over the north eastern Arabian Sea, a lower value of SST exists during early onset years compared to normal onset years which may have a triggering role in the formation of ‘mini break’ like condition. This aspect is examined using sensitivity simulations with the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting model. Simulations with reduced SST over the north eastern Arabian Sea during normal onset years exhibits considerable reduction in precipitation over the west coast of India and weakens the LLJ over the peninsular India. Whereas simulations with enhanced SST over the north eastern Arabian Sea during early onset years show increase in the convective activities over the eastern Arabian Sea and west coast of peninsular India, and the existence of ‘mini break’ like situation disappears from those years. Thus numerical simulations confirm the relation between SST over the north eastern Arabian Sea and the formation of ‘mini break’ during early onset years.

Upwelling index along the South Coast of Java from satellite imagery of wind stress and sea surface temperature

Upwelling Index which is processed from satellite imagery of wind stress and Sea Surface Temperature (SST) were examined to describe upwelling and its dynamics along the southern coast of Java. Analysis in September as the peak of upwelling shows that the commonly use of Ekman Transport-based Upwelling Index mostly shows higher values on the western part of south coast of Java as the alongshore wind stress is stronger to the west. But on the contrary, the SST-based Upwelling Index shows a relatively intense and persistent upwelling on the eastern part of south coast of Java and strengthened in El Nino year of 2015. The intense upwelling is indicated by the lowest value of SST minimum and the maximum value of thermal gradient SST up to 75 km off shore. Thus, for upwelling areas that are not predominantly induced by offshore Ekman Transport, the dynamics of upwelling would be better seen through an SST-based upwelling index. The use of both upwelling indices, will complement each other so that upwelling and its dynamics can be precisely understood.

Sea surface temperature changes due to polar lows over the Nordic Seas

In this study possible changes in sea surface temperature (SST) caused by passage of polar lows and analyzed. Polar lows are extreme atmospheric phenomena inherent to high latitudes. They develop sea surface wind speeds from 15 m/s up to hurricane force values and are characterized by small sizes (on average, 300 km) and lifetimes (less than two days), which complicates their detection and studies. It is assumed that as in case of tropical cyclones, which may considerably lower SST due to intense mixing and entrainment of colder waters to the ocean upper mixed layer, polar lows could similarly influence SST. Moreover, in the high latitude areas, where salt stratification may be present instead of temperature stratification, SST may increase due to mixing with deeper warmer layer. In this study 330 polar lows were analyzed using satellite passive microwave radiometer measurements of SST. In result, 47 cases when average SST values changed in polar low forcing areas were found. Out of these cases, in six cases SST increase of at least 0.5 °С was found, and in fifteen cases SST decrease of at least 0.5 °С was found. This indicates that upper ocean response to polar lows is quite rare phenomenon, which should be further analyzed along with its possible role in the ocean-ice-atmosphere system.

Spatio-temporal predictions of SST time series in China’s offshore waters using a regional convolution long short-term memory (RC-LSTM) network

ABSTRACT Sea surface temperature (SST) research is the basis of our understanding of local and global climate characteristics. Significant effort has been focused on the acquisition of accurate prediction results. Although a large amount of SST data is available due to the development of storage media, there are limited studies on the prediction of future SST values in a spatiotemporal manner. Most previous studies ignore the regional distribution information in natural geographical location, which leads to the loss of regional information and hinders further regional analysis. In this work, we have addressed this issue by presenting Regional Convolution long short-term memory (RC-LSTM) model with spatio-temporal information processing capability. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that SST time series has been used for region prediction based on deep learning. Daily SST from January 2000 to December 2012 from China’s offshore waters is adopted to conduct experiments. The local correlation and global coherence of each time series are extracted by the multi-layer neural network in the model. The structure of the RC-LSTM model includes a convolutional layer with region information extraction capabilities, and a long short-term memory (LSTM) layer. The RC-LSTM model performs well over both the South China Sea and the East China Sea, as determined by the root mean squared error (RMSE) and the accuracy (Acc). The experimental results show that our model is more accurate than traditional prediction models and has higher generalization ability, and is therefore more practical.

High-Resolution Sea Surface Temperature and Salinity in Coastal Areas Worldwide from Raw Satellite Data

The aim of this work is to obtain high-resolution values of sea surface salinity (SSS) and temperature (SST) in the global ocean by using raw satellite data (i.e., without any band data pre-processing or atmospheric correction). Sentinel-2 Level 1-C Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance data is used to obtain accurate SSS and SST information. A deep neural network is built to link the band information with in situ data from different buoys, vessels, drifters, and other platforms around the world. The neural network used in this paper includes shortcuts, providing an improved performance compared with the equivalent feed-forward architecture. The in situ information used as input for the network has been obtained from the Copernicus Marine In situ Service. Sentinel-2 platform-centred band data has been processed using Google Earth Engine in areas of 100 m × 100 m. Accurate salinity values are estimated for the first time independently of temperature. Salinity results rely only on direct satellite observations, although it presented a clear dependency on temperature ranges. Results show the neural network has good interpolation and extrapolation capabilities. Test results present correlation coefficients of 82% and 84% for salinity and temperature, respectively. The most common error for both SST and SSS is 0.4 °C and 0.4 PSU. The sensitivity analysis shows that outliers are present in areas where the number of observations is very low. The network is finally applied over a complete Sentinel-2 tile, presenting sensible patterns for river-sea interaction, as well as seasonal variations. The methodology presented here is relevant for detailed coastal and oceanographic applications, reducing the time for data pre-processing, and it is applicable to a wide range of satellites, as the information is directly obtained from TOA data.

On the use of NLSST and MCSST for the study of spatio-temporal trends in SST gradients

ABSTRACTOngoing efforts are dedicated by meteorological and oceanographic agencies to improve the accuracy of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) estimates from satellite observations via improved retrieval algorithms and validation data. An important application of satellite-based SST observations is the analysis of the spatio-temporal characteristics of ocean fronts, which depend on several parameters including the SST retrieval scheme from Top-of-Atmosphere Brightness Temperatures. In this study, we focus on two widely used SST retrieval algorithms, namely the Multichannel SST (MCSST) and the Nonlinear SST (NLSST). Using night-time Level 2 SST derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) onboard Aqua from 2005 to 2015 over the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (SAO), we show that 1) the spatial distribution and temporal variability of SST gradient magnitudes derived from these two SST retrieval schemes are different despite statistical consistency of SST fields 2) the widely used NLSST formulation introduces a correlation between SST gradient magnitudes and SST values. This correlation, likely due to the use of a first guess SST in the NLSST formulation, is not observed in the MCSST data and may affect the study of long-term changes in ocean dynamics.

Added Value of Atmosphere-Ocean Coupling in a Century-Long Regional Climate Simulation

A twentieth century-long coupled atmosphere-ocean regional climate simulation with COSMO-CLM (Consortium for Small-Scale Modeling, Climate Limited-area Model) and NEMO (Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean) is studied here to evaluate the added value of coupled marginal seas over continental regions. The interactive coupling of the marginal seas, namely the Mediterranean, the North and the Baltic Seas, to the atmosphere in the European region gives a comprehensive modelling system. It is expected to be able to describe the climatological features of this geographically complex area even more precisely than an atmosphere-only climate model. The investigated variables are precipitation and 2 m temperature. Sensitivity studies are used to assess the impact of SST (sea surface temperature) changes over land areas. The different SST values affect the continental precipitation more than the 2 m temperature. The simulated variables are compared to the CRU (Climatic Research Unit) observational data, and also to the HOAPS/GPCC (Hamburg Ocean Atmosphere Parameters and Fluxes from Satellite Data, Global Precipitation Climatology Centre) data. In the coupled simulation, added skill is found primarily during winter over the eastern part of Europe. Our analysis shows that, over this region, the coupled system is dryer than the uncoupled system, both in terms of precipitation and soil moisture, which means a decrease in the bias of the system. Thus, the coupling improves the simulation of precipitation over the eastern part of Europe, due to cooler SST values and in consequence, drier soil.

Monitoring Variation in Sea Surface Temperature in the Nakdong River Estuary, Korea, Using Multiple Satellite Images

Eom, J.; Park, W.; Syifa, M.; Lee, C., and Yoon, S., 2019. Monitoring variation in sea surface temperature in the Nakdong River estuary, Korea, using multiple satellite images. In: Jung, H.-S.; Lee, S.; Ryu, J.-H., and Cui, T. (eds.), Advances in Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information Systems of Coastal Environments. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 90, pp. 183-189. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.Annual and monthly sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of the coastal waters around Nakdong River, Korea, were analyzed using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Landsat. SST values derived from MODIS data were consistent with the in-situ data (R2 = 0.63), whereas Landsat-derived SST values were moderately correlated with in-situ data (R2 = 0.44). The mean annual SST over 18 years was 21.7 °C. The coldest temperatures were recorded in 2001, and the warmest were recorded in 2016. SSTs were higher during the summer than in the winter, mainly because of higher air temperatures in summer. Across all years, March was the coldest month, with a mean SST of 14.4 °C, whereas August was the warmest month at 28 °C. As MODIS data have a spatial resolution of 4 km, it cannot be used to detect SST variation at fine spatial scales (least 100 m or less). However, it can be monitored temporal trends in SST. Spatially detailed SST variation was monitored using Landsat data. According to the Landsat data, warm SSTs were measured in the area extending from the southwest to northeast of the Nakdong Estuary, which is an area affected by the Kuroshio Current. Climate data are needed in addition to image data to accurately monitor SST variation in the future.

Subtropical Cyclone Anita's Potential to Tropical Transition Under Warmer Sea Surface Temperature Scenarios

AbstractOn 6 March 2010, Anita, the first subtropical cyclone observed over the South Atlantic Ocean, formed near the southeastern coast of Brazil, and during its life cycle, Anita almost acquired a tropical structure. The potential of Anita to undergo tropical transition in scenarios of increased sea surface temperature (SST) was investigated through a set of numerical sensitivity experiments. The results show that, if the SST had been 2°C warmer throughout Anita's life cycle, the system would have undergone tropical transition in its maturity stage; however, if the SST had increased only during Anita's quasi‐stationary period, the tropical transition completion would have occurred only with higher values of SST (6°C).

Climatic changes of thermal condition in the Kara sea at last 40 years

The paper discusses air (Ta) and sea surface temperature (SST) year-to-year variability due to warming of the Kara Sea, using the data from regular observations at the meteorological stations Roshydromet (GMS) in 1978–2017, NOAA optimum interpolation and reanalysis data. We use the methods of cluster, correlation analysis and Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF). We investigate possible cause and effect relationships of these changes with the variations of the wind field components, climatic indices and the sea ice concentration field. The cluster analysis of the three main EOF components has allowed us to identify four areas on the basis of the nature of changes of the water temperature anomalies field. The climatic changes in these areas, in the coastal and island zones of the Kara Sea have manifested themselves in the steady increase of the annual air temperature at GMS from 0,47–0,77 °C/10 years on the southwest coast to 1,33–1,49 °C/10 years in the north of the sea. This is equivalent to warming from 1,9 to 6,0 °C in the last 40 years. For the open sea the value of the Ta trend is about 1,22 °C/10 years, which corresponds to an increase in the average Ta by 4,9 °C in the last 40 years. This value is approximately 3 times greater than that for all the Northern hemisphere for the same period.Annualy, the maximal trend was observed in November and April mainly and exceeded 2–3 °C/10 years at some of the stations. We identify anomalously warm (2016 and 2012) and anomalously cold (1978, 1979, 1992 and 1998) years: the warmest year was 2012, the coldest — 1979. Positive SST trends were observed over all the sea area during the warm period of year (to 1 °C/10 years). SST increased to 2,4 °C, which is approximately 1,5 times greater than the corresponding SST values for the Northern hemisphere. The maximum SST trend (0,4 °C/10 years) was observed in the northwest and southwest parts of the sea. From June to August the trends of SST exceed the annual ones 1,5–2 times. Interannual SST and Ta variations are characterized by close correlation links. Until approximately 1998–2004 the warming was rather insignificant, and after that the growth rate of Ta and SST increased many fold. Apparently it indicates changes in the mode and the large-scale atmospheric circulation in the early 2000s. We also observed a trend of strengthening of the southern wind during the cold period of the year and the northern one — in the warm period (0,5–0,6 m/s in 40 years). It is shown that there is a close correlation between the Ta increase and the changes in the meridional component of the wind speed during the cold period of the year for all the sea areas. For the warm period it is statistically insignificant both for Ta and SST. For the cold season we observed a contribution of the large-scale mode of atmospheric circulation into the variability of V component of the wind speed. The conribution was expressed through the indeces NAO, SCAND, Pol/EUR, AZOR, ISL and the differences of ISLSIB. For the warm season this contribution is expressed through the NAO, SCAND and AO only. For the warm period we showed statistically significant correlation between the increase in SST, Ta and the processes parametrized by the AMO, EA/WR and AZOR indeces. For the cold period the indeces are AMO, Pol/Eur, SIB and ISL SIB. The interannual variations of the sea ice concentration field are characterized by close correlation with Ta changes both in the annual cycle and during the periods of ice cover formation and evolution (R = –0,7... –0,9). For these periods we showed statistically significant relationships between the first EOF mode fluctuations and two climatic indeces — AMO (R = 0,5) and Pol/Eur (R = 0,4). The relationships between the temporary variability of the sea ice concentration and the wind field characteristics are weaker and statistically significant only for the meridional component of the wind speed (R = –0,4).

Sea surface temperature variability in the Makassar strait during ENSO (El niño Southern Oscillation) from the Terra-MODIS data sets

ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) is an anomaly phenomenon of ocean-atmosphere system in the Pacific Ocean. This phenomenon also affects the condition of SST (Sea Surface Temperature) in Indonesian seas, especially Makassar Strait. The condition of SST is influenced by water mass from the Pacific Ocean that flows into Makassar Strait Indonesian Throughflow (ITF). The purpose of this study is to analyse the relationship between the SST and ENSO phenomenon in Makassar Strait. Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) used todeterminethe extreme ENSO events (El Niño and La Niña), and we compared the maximum and minimum value of SST between those events. The data used in this study is monthly average of SST level-3 from Tera-MODIS satellite and processed using software SeaDAS (version 7.3.2). During 17 years (2001 – 2017) there were 6 La Niña Phenomenon and 4 El Niño phenomenon. The result from this research indicates a relationship between SST and Enso Phenomenon, where the SST range in La Niña condition is higher that El Niño condition. The correlation value is 0.109. The monthly average of SST at La Niña Condition in the Makassar Strait has a values between 29.66 °C to 30.25 °C, while SST in El Niño condition is ranged from 29.91 °C to – 30.23 °C.

Influence of oceanographic conditions on nesting abundance, phenology and internesting periods of east Pacific green turtles

Sea turtles are migratory animals that travel from foraging grounds to specific nesting beaches every few years and that, therefore, can be influenced by oceanographic conditions in several different habitats. We assessed how sea surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll-α (Chl-α) within both internesting and foraging areas influence the nesting abundance, phenology and duration of internesting periods of the green turtles (Chelonia mydas) that nest at Cabuyal, Northwest Costa Rica. Specifically, we compared (1) SST and Chl-α in foraging areas to the nesting abundance and median nesting date (MND) registered on the beach over seven nesting seasons and (2) SST in internesting habitats to the observed internesting period (OIP) (number of days between successful nesting events) and the MND. Nesting abundance was strongly correlated to Chl-α concentrations at the main foraging area during the February preceding the nesting season. However, we found no significant effect of SST or Chl-α in either foraging or internesting habitats on the MND. Mean SST values in the internesting habitats and OIP were negatively correlated and were highly variable both between and within years. Oceanographic conditions appear to strongly influence OIP and nesting abundance, but not the nesting phenology of green turtles in this area. The complex nature of the effect of oceanographic conditions on reproduction of the East Pacific green turtle suggests uncertainty in how this species will respond to climate change.

Preliminary Findings on Distribution of Bali Sardinella (Sardinella lemuru) in Relation to Oceanographic Conditions during Southeast Monsoon in Bali Strait Using Remotely Sensed Data

Bali sardinella (Sardinella lemuru) is the main fishing catches in Bali Strait. The distribution of S. lemuru and its preferred oceanographic condition were investigated from remotely sensed data. The objectives of this study were to elucidate the distribution of S. lemuru and the preferred oceanographic condition of S. lemuru in Bali Strait using remotely sensed data. Sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface chlorophyll-a (chl-a) were downloaded from ocean colour website meanwhile the fishing location generated from daily Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) boat detection (VDB), downloaded from NOAA website. The results showed that at the beginning of southeast monsoon (April), most of the fishing location appeared in the north part of Bali Strait, and moved to south part of Bali Strait at the end of the southeast monsoon (September). The results also revealed that most of fishing location of S. lemuru located in SST value of 26 – 30 °C and chl-a value of 0.3 – 0.8 mg/m3. Integration VDB data and oceanographic condition generated from remotely sensed data could form the basis for fisheries management and information system, such as S. lemuru in Bali Strait, in the future.

Chlorophyll-a, and Sea Surface Temperature (SST) as proxies for Climate Changes: Case Study in Batu Ampar waters, Riau Islands

The condition of Indonesian oceanography is largely determined by the development of the Monsoon Wind and the Indonesian Cross Flow (ARLINDO). The development of marine remote sensing technology that is so fast, able to make it easier to map the condition of waters in Indonesia in an actual way easily and cheaply. This can make it easier to obtain information about climate change approaches to the physical oceanography conditions in Indonesian waters. The purpose of this research is to study the changes of the physical oceanography parameters resulting from climate changes. Based on the results of the research that for the highest Sea Surface Temperature (SST) exist in 2013 (above 30,75 °C). It has increased from the previous year i.e. in 2012 with an increase of SST value of 30 o C. In 2013 SST is spread high on the Batu Ampar Permit - Harbor Bay ferry port. Analyzing the value of chlorophyll-a, sea surface temperature, and sea level to see global climate change in the waters of Batu Ampar. The analysis shows the highest sea level with an elevation of 3.1 meters, with sea surface temperature in the range of 29,5 °C - 29,75 °C, at the time of recording 00:05-02:55 (August 1, 2017 - September 1, 2017). The results of the analysis obtained from the oceanographic conditions in the waters of Batu Ampar did not experience a fluctuating change in global climate change in the waters. The annual SST interval spacing interval of 0.5-0.75 °C and the changing phase relationship could have an impact on subsequent climate change and sea level rise to be concrete evidence. Reduced levels of chlorophyll-a each year will have an impact on the heat of the sea level, thus rising sea levels and indicating a climate with hot temperatures (ice at the poles melt).

Sensitivity of Midlatitude Heavy Precipitation to SST: A Case Study in the Sea of Japan Area on 9 August 2013

AbstractThis study investigates the influence of sea surface temperature (SST) over the Sea of Japan on a heavy precipitation event that occurred over the northern part (Northern Tohoku region) of Japan's largest island on 9 August 2013. Sensitivity experiments with the Weather Research and Forecasting model show that warmer (cooler) SSTs prescribed over the Sea of Japan in the simulations lead to an increase (decrease) in 24‐hr precipitation averaged within the Northern Tohoku region, especially on the Sea of Japan (i.e., windward) side. Though no significant relationship is found between the local maxima and SSTs over the Sea of Japan, those SST values over the Sea of Japan affect the evolution of the intense convective precipitation; higher (lower) SSTs act to shift the location of intense precipitation on the upwind (downwind) side in the present event. The different evolution results in a different interaction with the downstream orography, leading to no significant relationship between the local maxima of intense precipitation and SSTs. The differences arise from the sensitivity of convective updraft to SSTs. The simulations thus suggest that uncertainties in currently available SST products may alter both the area‐averaged precipitation and the geographical locations of intense precipitation, which can potentially impact flash flood and landslide warnings.

Satellite observations of the effect of the \u201cGodzilla El Ni\xf1o\u201d on the Tehuantepec upwelling system in the Mexican Pacific

During 2015–2016, a strong El Niño, the “Godzilla El Niño,” which is similar to El Niño events that occurred in 1982/1983 and 1997/1998, occurred in the Pacific Ocean. In this paper, we report on the influence of the “Godzilla El Niño” on the sea surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll-a (Chla) concentrations in the Tehuantepec upwelling system using satellite observation data. A time-series of the SST and Chla levels in a circular site with a diameter of approximately 54 km centered at the fixed position (15°N, 94.75°W) for the period from January 2003 to December 2016 was obtained using a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer. To estimate the vertical water velocity, a wind velocity time series was obtained from the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service to assess its variation over the period from January 2014 to December 2016. The results showed unusually high SSTs (> 28 °C) and atypically low Chla concentrations (< 0.1 mg m−3) in the domain of interest during the winter of 2015/2016. In the region of study, the SST in January 2016 was 5.13 °C higher than it had been in January of 2015, whereas the Chla concentration was 1.56 mg m−3 lower over this period. We found that the “Godzilla El Niño” impacted the Tehuantepec upwelling system in the following ways: (1) the wind and vertical water velocity during the winter of 2015/2016 were slightly higher than those observed during the winters of 2013/2014 and 2014/2015; (2) the coastal SST values were elevated during the winter of 2015/2016 compared to their levels during the previous two winters, revealing nutrient-poor water advection; and (3) the Chla concentrations during the 2015/2016 winter season were unusually low compared to their levels during the previous two winters. Our interpretation of these results is that in the Tehuantepec Gulf the wind was strong and induced vertical water velocities reaching up to 6 m day−1 during the “Godzilla El Niño” event (winter 2015/2016); however, the levels of Chla during this period were lower than they had been in previous years. In particular, the levels were lower than they had been during the previous winters. This suggests that, although the wind during the event favored strong upwelling, the water that was advected to the upper layer was nutrient poor.