Sea Islands Research Articles

Research on the Effect of Natural Seawater in Domesticating Bacillus pasteurii and Reinforcing Calcareous Sand

Microbial-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) is an environmentally friendly, efficient, and sustainable new soil reinforcement technology. For this study, Bacillus pasteurii were domesticated and cultured in a natural seawater environment with multiple gradients and used for coral reef calcareous sand reinforcement, comparing the mineral composition of the generated precipitates and the reinforcement strength under different domestication gradient conditions. The results revealed that, while the natural seawater environment inhibits the growth of Bacillus pasteurii, the gradient domestication method allows the bacteria to gradually adapt to the natural seawater environment. Notably, their shape becomes thin and long under the seawater environment. Furthermore, the MICP mineralisation reaction rate is faster in the natural seawater environment and, with an increase in the domestication gradient, the mineralisation reaction precipitates increased. At the same time, in the seawater environment, a small amount of mineral components were generated in addition to CaCO3, such as MgxCay(CO3)z, and the Mg2+ mineral content increased with an increase in the domestication gradient. When comparing the curing effect under different gradients in the natural seawater environment, it was found that the Bacillus pasteurii can effectively enhance the curing effect of the calcareous sand after multi-gradient domestication in the seawater environment, with the curing effect increasing with an increase in the domestication gradient. The results of this study provide new ideas for the application of MICP technology in seawater environments for the reinforcement of calcareous sand in the construction of South China Sea islands and reefs.

Noise‐tolerant matched filter scheme supplemented with neural dynamics algorithm for sea island extraction

AbstractAchieving high‐precision extraction of sea islands from high‐resolution satellite remote sensing images is crucial for effective resource development and sustainable management. Unfortunately, achieving such accuracy for sea island extraction presents significant challenges due to the presence of extensive background interference. A more widely applicable noise‐tolerant matched filter (NTMF) scheme is proposed for sea island extraction based on the MF scheme. The NTMF scheme effectively suppresses the background interference, leading to more accurate and robust sea island extraction. To further enhance the accuracy and robustness of the NTMF scheme, a neural dynamics algorithm is supplemented that adds an error integration feedback term to counter noise interference during internal computer operations in practical applications. Several comparative experiments were conducted on various remote sensing images of sea islands under different noisy working conditions to demonstrate the superiority of the proposed neural dynamics algorithm‐assisted NTMF scheme. These experiments confirm the advantages of using the NTMF scheme for sea island extraction with the assistance of neural dynamics algorithm.

Biological soil crust elicits microbial community and extracellular polymeric substances restructuring to reduce the soil erosion on tropical island, South China Sea

Soil erosion stands as the preeminent environmental concern globally, attaining heightened significance, particularly within islands where land resources prove notably scarce. Biological soil crusts, referred to as biocrusts, assume a pivotal ecological role in soil conservation. Notably, they augment the horizontal stability of the substrate through the exudation of microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), thereby shielding the soil against shear stress, exemplified in the form of water erosion. While extant research has delved into the anti-erosion mechanisms of biocrusts in arid landscapes, a conspicuous lacuna persists in the exploration of coral island environments. In this study, we collected and assessed 30 samples encompassing dark biocrusts, light biocrusts, and bare soil to scrutinize the potential anti-erosion efficacy of tropical coral island biocrusts within the South China Sea. Employing a cohesive strength meter, we quantified soil shear stress across various stages of biocrust development, revealing a discernible enhancement in soil erosion resistance during the formation of biocrusts. Relative to the exposed bare soil, the soil shear stress exhibited an escalation from 0.33 N m−2 to 0.61 N m−2 and 1.31 N m−2 in the light biocrusts and dark biocrusts, respectively. Mechanistically, we assayed microbial EPS contents, exposing a positive correlation between EPS and soil anti-erodibility, encompassing extracellular protein and polysaccharide. Concurrently, bacterial abundance displayed a significant augmentation commensurate with biocrust formation and development. In pursuit of elucidating the origin of EPS, high-throughput amplicon sequencing was executed to identify microorganisms contributing to biocrust development. Correlation analysis discerned Cyanobacteria, Chloroflexi, Deinococcota, and Patescibacteria as potential microbials fostering EPS production and fortifying erosion resistance. Collectively, our study presents the first evidence that biocrust from tropical coral reef island in the South China Sea promotes resistance to soil erosion, pinpointing key EPS-producing microbials against soil erosion. The findings would provide insights for island environment restoration.

Corrosion Behavior of the 2024 Aluminum Alloy in the Atmospheric Environment of the South China Sea Islands

The 2024 aluminum alloy, a structural material commonly used in aviation aircraft bodies, is susceptible to serious corrosion in marine atmospheric environments. This paper comprehensively studies the corrosion behavior of the 2024 aluminum alloy in the South China Sea atmosphere. Weighing, morphology observation, phase analysis, electrochemical testing, and other methods were used to study the corrosion law and corrosion mechanism of the 2024 aluminum alloy. The main conclusions are as follows: At the initial stage of exposure, pitting corrosion occurred on the surface of the 2024 aluminum alloy. After 3 months of exposure, the self-corrosion current density increased from 0.456 μA·cm−2 to 8.338 μA·cm−2. After 6 months of exposure, the corrosion developed into general corrosion. The main component of the corrosion product was Al2O3·3H2O. The product covered the surface to form a loose corrosion product layer, which had an inhibitory effect on corrosion. The self-corrosion current density was reduced to 2.359 μA·cm−2. After 12 months of exposure, the corrosion product layer fell off and became thinner, and the self-corrosion current density increased to 2.849 μA·cm−2. The corrosion kinetics conformed to the functional equation W = 0.00346t0.73891, indicating that the corrosion products have a certain protective effect on the matrix.

The late middle Eocene palynoflora of Hareø, West Greenland: polar forests in a vanishing greenhouse world

Middle Eocene interbasaltic deposits of Hareø, West Greenland, have yielded a rich leaf and fruit record, which was described in the second half of the nineteenth century. In this study, we describe dispersed spores and pollen from the Aumarûtigssâ Member of the Hareøen Formation in order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of the late middle Eocene vegetation of West Greenland. The spore/pollen assemblage, derived from a resinite-rich coal bed, comprises 123 taxa, of which 14 belong to mosses, ferns and fern-allies, 14 to gymnosperms, and 95 to angiosperms. The most diverse groups of angiosperms are Fagales, comprising 27 taxa, and Rosales, represented by nine taxa. Along with conifers belonging to Pinaceae, these groups reflect the temperate character of the Hareø flora. In addition, a few ‘exotic’ elements include cycads probably belonging to an extinct temperate lineage that was widespread across the Northern Hemisphere during the Paleogene, palm trees, members of Mastixioideae and Santalaceae, both of which were characteristic elements of more southern warm temperate floras of Europe. A detailed comparison with macrofossil and spore/pollen assemblages of roughly coeval sites from Axel Heiberg Island (Canada), Spitsbergen (Arctic Ocean), and ODP site 151-913B in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, show a highly consistent picture of the vegetation during this time.

Extracting shallow water depth from the fusion of multi-temporal ICESat-2 data and multi-spectral imageries

With the development of satellite remote sensing and laser altimetry data, the fusion of laser altimetry data and multi-spectral images for shallow water depth inversion has become an economically convenient way. However, there are few methods that take into account the temporal dimension of data to integrate the results of water depth inversion in multiple temporal phases. In response to this issue, this article proposed a shallow water depth inversion method that integrates multi-source and multi-temporal remote sensing data. This method utilized the random forest (RF) algorithm to estimate the water depth values at different time, taking into account the contextual information of Sentinel-2 imagery and using the overall least squares as the theoretical model to fuse the multi-temporal water depth inversion results. This article took the Yongle Islands in the South China Sea as the research area and conducted the shallow water inversion experiments using ICESat-2 (Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite 2) data from 5 temporal phases and one Sentinel-2 imagery. The results show that the mean value of RMSE (root mean square error) and R2 (determination coefficient) of the proposed method using single temporal imagery was 1.53m and 0.7610, which outperformed the inversion accuracy of traditional methods that ignore image context information. The RMSE and R2 of the multi-temporal fusion model was 1.15m and 0.8622, which was 0.08m and 0.0199m higher than existing median filtering fusion method.

The Refugee Crisis of Sherman's March: Savannah, Port Royal, and the Transformation of the Sea Islands

The Refugee Crisis of Sherman's March: Savannah, Port Royal, and the Transformation of the Sea Islands

Incomplete isolation in the nonbreeding areas of two genetically separated but sympatric short-tailed albatross populations

The short-tailed albatross Phoebastria albatrus, a globally Vulnerable species recovering from near-extinction, breeds mainly on 2 island groups in the north-western Pacific: Torishima and Senkaku Islands. Recently, it became clear that this is a species complex, composed of 2 populations (‘Torishima’ and ‘Senkaku’ types) that are distinct from both genetic and morphological perspectives, and which mate assortatively on Torishima. We tested the hypothesis of premating isolation as a possible mechanism for genetic differentiation and shifted breeding date in short-tailed albatrosses. Using light-based geolocation and molecular analysis, we examined whether adults from the 2 populations breeding on Torishima differed in their at-sea distribution during the nonbreeding period (June-September) and in their return dates. From 22 bird tracks collected from 12 birds over 4 yr, we identified 2 distinct nonbreeding areas: around the Aleutian Islands in the Bering Sea and near the Kuril Islands in the Okhotsk Sea. All 6 tracks of Torishima-type birds migrated directly to the Bering Sea in all years. In contrast, most of the Senkaku-type birds migrated along northeast Japan to the Okhotsk Sea (9 tracks), with the others moving to the Bering Sea (7 tracks). There was no clear difference in the dates of return to Torishima between the 2 bird types. Overall, no absolute pre-mating isolation in space or time was observed in short-tailed albatrosses, but we highlighted notable divergences in the nonbreeding distribution of both types. This result suggests that Torishima- and Senkaku-type populations should be treated as separate management units.

Application of wetPf2 Data for Investigating Characteristics of Temperature and Humidity of Air Masses over Paracel and Spratly Islands

This article uses data from the second-generation Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC-2) satellites (wetPf2) to study the temperature and humidity properties of the air masses over Paracel and Spratly Islands in the Vietnam East Sea (South China Sea). The satellite observational data were validated with the radiosonde data from three stations in Vietnam: Hanoi, Danang, and Ho Chi Minh City. Subsequently, the wetPf2 data are used to analyze the characteristics of temperature and relative humidity variations of the air masses over the Paracel and Spratly regions. Results show that the mean error of the satellite observational data for temperature ranges from −0.06°C to −0.02°C, with standard deviations ranging from 0.73°C to 1.04°C. The mean error of relative humidity fluctuates between 11.6% and 12.5%, with standard deviations ranging from 15.1% to 19.1%. The values are reasonable and comparable to those in previous studies. Seasonal variations of temperature and humidity show that the air mass over the Paracel Islands exhibits a larger annual temperature with an annual variation of approximately 5.0°C, significantly higher than the value of 2.2°C in the air mass over the Spratly Islands. The difference may be due to the greater influence of continental and seasonal wind systems in the northern region. Within both air masses, the annual temperature variation in the boundary layer is much larger than that in the free atmosphere. Annual relative humidity variation is higher in summer and autumn than in winter and spring. The significant changes in the relative humidity with height during winter and no significant change of the relative humidity with height during summer may be related to the important role of strong convective activity carrying moist air upward to higher atmospheric levels during the summer time.

Microplastics in remote coral reef environments of the Xisha Islands in the South China Sea: Source, accumulation and potential risk

Microplastics (MPs) are of great concern to coral health, particularly enhanced biotoxicity of small microplastics (< 100 µm) (SMPs). However, their fate and harm to remote coral reef ecosystems remain poorly elucidated. This work systematically investigated the distributions and features of MPs and SMPs in sediments from 13 islands/reefs of the Xisha Islands, the South China Sea for comprehensively deciphering their accumulation, sources and risk to coral reef ecosystems. The results show that both MPs (average, 682 items/kg) and SMPs (average, 375 items/kg) exhibit heterogeneous distributions, with accumulation within atolls and dispersion across fringing islands, which controlled by human activities and hydrodynamic conditions. Cluster analysis for the first time reveals a pronounced difference in their compositions between the southern and northern Xisha Islands and resultant distinct sources, i.e., MPs in the north part were leaked mainly from local domestic sewage and fishing waste, while in the south part were probably derived from industrial effluents from adjacent countries. Our ecological risk assessment suggests that the ecosystem within the Yongle Atoll is exposed to a high-risk of MPs pollution. The novel results and proposed framework facilitate to effectively manage and control MPs and accordingly preserve a fragile biosphere in remote coral reefs.

Flash flood prediction in St. Lucia island through a surrogate hydraulic model

ABSTRACT Recent flood disasters caused by extreme meteorological events highlight the need of fast and reliable tools for flooding forecast. For our purposes, the danger associated with floods is embodied in a single risk-level flag which considers both local water depth and velocity. The methodology here derived is applied and validated for the case study of the St. Lucia island in the eastern Caribbean Sea that experiences flash flooding as a result of combined intense rainfall and steep slopes, difficult to predict with traditional early-warning systems. A multi-layer perceptron neural network is trained on a high-fidelity dataset generated through full two-dimensional shallow water simulations of real and synthetic events. The dataset is validated against social markers obtained from real events. The predictive capabilities of the neural network model are tested on the out-of-box case of the Dean and Tomas hurricanes and compared with the solutions of the shallow water solver. The surrogate solver allows a significant speed-up in the prediction time with respect to traditional CFD (seconds vs hours), showing a high precision and accuracy, with accuracy, precision and F1-score above 0.99.

A Case Study of Wave–Wave Interaction South to Dongsha Island in the South China Sea

In a SAR image acquired by the ERS-2 satellite, crossed “X-shape” internal solitary waves (ISWs) south to Dongsha Island are found to be a wave–wave interaction composed of five solitons: two head waves, two tail waves, and the overlapped part. To explain this remote sensing phenomenon, based on a high-resolution three-dimensional MIT general circulation model (MITgcm) using realistic topography and tidal forcing, the “X-shape” internal waves are reproduced at the same location. The development processes of the waves indicate that the “X-shape” ISWs are two waves diffracted from one internal wave southeast to Dongsha Island. During the propagation, the amplitude of their overlapped part of the “X-shape” ISWs becomes significantly larger than the sum of the amplitudes of both head waves, which proves that nonlinear wave–wave interaction has occurred. Based on wave–wave interaction theory, the theoretical maximum value of the amplitude of the overlapped part at the initial moment is calculated as 14.12 m, which is in good agreement with the model results of 14 m. Meanwhile, the variation of the theoretical amplitude of the overlapped part is basically consistent with that of the modeled one, confirming the occurrence of the wave–wave interaction. Besides, when the waves propagate over varying water depths, the type of the wave–wave interaction can change rather than being fixed from the start.

Bacterial carbonic anhydrase-induced carbonates mitigate soil erosion in biological soil crusts

Soil erosion is a significant environmental issue worldwide, particularly in island regions where land resources are exceedingly scarce. Biological soil crusts play a crucial role in mitigating soil erosion, yet the precise effect and mechanism of biological soil crusts against erosion remain ambiguous. In this study, biological soil crusts at various developmental stages from a tropical coral island in the South China Sea were chosen to investigate the role of carbonic anhydrase in mitigating erosion. A cohesive strength meter, real-time quantitative PCR, and 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing were employed to assess variations in soil antiscouribility as well as bacterial abundance and composition during the formation and development of biological soil crusts. Scanning electron microscopy was utilized to detect carbonates induced by bacterial carbonic anhydrase and elucidate their role in the solidification of sand particles. The findings indicate that the formation and development of biological soil crusts significantly enhance anti-scouribility. Comparison to those of bare coral sand, the shear stress increased from 0.35 to 1.11 N/m2 in the dark biocrusts. Moreover, significantly elevated carbonic anhydrase activity was observed in biological soil crusts, demonstrating a positive correlation with antiscouribility. In addition, there was a significant increase in bacterial abundance within the biological soil crusts. The enrichment of Cyanobacteriales and Chloroflexales potentially contributed to the increased carbonic anhydrase activity and antiscouribility. Furthermore, three cyanobacterial strains with carbonic anhydrase activity were isolated from biological soil crusts and subsequently confirmed to enhance sand solidification through microbial carbonate precipitation. This study presents initial evidence for the role of microbial carbonic anhydrase in enhancing the antiscouribility of biological soil crusts during their formation and development. These findings offer novel insights into the functional and mechanistic dimensions underlying the mitigation of soil erosion facilitated by biological soil crusts, which are valuable for implementing sustainable biorestoration and environmental management technologies to prevent soil erosion.

Analysis of carbon emission drivers and peak carbon forecasts for island economies

Sea islands are an essential support for expanding the blue economic space, and the study of the carbon emissions of Changhai County's island economies and their carbon peaking time is of great significance for achieving the goal of building an ecological low-carbon demonstration island with northern characteristics in Changhai County. In this study, the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method was used to explore the three main drivers affecting the carbon emissions of the island economies in Changhai County. The carbon emissions of Changhai County in 2012–2019 were estimated through the system dynamics model. The low-carbon development path and possible carbon peak time of Changhai County in 2020–2035 were predicted. The results show that: ①The urban system is the first positive driver of carbon emissions, followed by the residential system, and finally, the fishery system, the energy structure effect is the main positive driving effect affecting carbon emissions, and the population effect always shows a negative inhibitory impact on carbon emissions. ②The activities on the islands of Changhai County in 2012–2019 cumulatively produced 167.53 × 104 t of carbon emissions, 46.83 × 104 t of carbon sinks, and their net carbon emissions were 120.69 × 104 t. The results of the future scenario projections show that neither non-intervention nor a single policy of only adjusting land use and transport can achieve minor carbon emissions and that the best path for future low-carbon development in Changhai County is to develop all kinds of activities in a low-carbon (L) mode. ④Among the future forecast scenarios, Scenario 5 is an ideal model for the fastest way to achieve carbon peak, which generates 318.39 × 104 t of carbon emissions, and the cumulative emission reduction reaches 26.37 × 104 t.

Yemen Maritime Strategy Planning and Development in Red Sea and Indian Ocean Feasibility Study for Fishing Ports and Yemeni Islands in Red Sea

Yemen Maritime Strategy Planning and Development in Red Sea and Indian Ocean Feasibility Study for Fishing Ports and Yemeni Islands in Red Sea

Recovery of a tropical coral reef in the aftermath of a cyclone: insights into postdisturbance dynamics and conservation strategies

Over the past decade, the Arabian Sea has witnessed an increase in tropical cyclones during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon months, resulting in heightened devastation across the vulnerable low-lying coral islands in the Lakshadweep Sea along the southwest coast of India. Our underwater survey-based study—focused on Kavaratti Atoll in the Lakshadweep group, India—provides groundbreaking evidence on the rapid recovery potential of coral reefs following severe cyclonic events, a globally relevant concern given increasing climate change impacts. The observed coral recovery rate was significantly faster than expected, showing that recovery rates can differ in coral reefs of different regions. The recovery was primarily facilitated by quick-growing coral genera such as Pocillopora and Acropora, leading to a shift in the coral assemblage. The recovery by these fast-growing corals highlights their role as early succession species, pivotal in the initial stages of reef recovery. The findings of this study underscore the crucial significance of ongoing monitoring, maintaining reef connectivity, and establishing marine protected areas for the conservation of less-studied remote reef systems.

Juridical Analysis of Eradicating Illegal Narcotics at the Border of the Riau Islands Region (Research Study by the Directorate of Narcotics Research at the Riau Islands Regional Police)

Eradicating illegal narcotics on the borders of the Riau Islands region or maritime areas connected to sea routes has a high prospect for the spread of narcotics crimes across national borders. To tackle the criminal act of smuggling narcotics from abroad into Indonesia via the Riau Islands sea route, the Riau Islands Regional Police's narcotics research directorate is carrying out in-depth prevention efforts through evaluating cross-country narcotics trafficking routes or what are commonly known as rat routes in order to minimize and reduce the level of cross-border narcotics smuggling. in the Riau Islands region. The problem in this research is how to regulate the eradication of illicit narcotics at the borders of the Riau Islands region, what are the implementation, obstacles and solutions for optimizing the eradication of illicit narcotics at the borders of the Riau Islands region, and what are the monitoring efforts carried out in eradicating illicit narcotics at the borders of the Riau Islands region (Research Study at the Directorate Riau Islands Regional Police Narcotics Investigation). The results of the research show that the eradication of illicit narcotics at the borders of the Riau Islands region (research study of the Kepri Police's drug investigation directorate) has been running in accordance with the duties and functions of the detective unit, for the obstacles faced in terms of infrastructure and transportation so it is hoped that the field process will be further improved. running optimally.

Discovery of a German V-2 Rocket Fall Site in the Area of Chodzież, in Greater Poland

In the 1930s, in the town of Peenemünde on the northern edge of the Usedom Island in the Baltic Sea, the Germans established a military research centre to work on rocket engines. In Peenemünde, the Aggregat 4 – the first ever rocket to cross the space frontier – was constructed and launched. However, it went down in history under the name V-2. This weapon was the world’s first ballistic missile used in combat. At the end of World War II, V-2 rockets were a technological marvel of the time. Reaching supersonic speeds, they were an unrecognized design for the Allies in terms of control and targeting principles. They were a weapon almost impossible to shoot down. The RAF’s destruction of the Peenemünde facility in 1943 was the reason for its relocation to the Heidelager military training ground in the village of Blizna, Subcarpathian province, out of the range of Allied aviation. Threatened by the Soviet Army’s offensive, it was moved again in 1944 to the Heidenkraut training ground in Wierzchucin, Kuyavia-Pomerania province. As a result of archaeological work in the area of Chodzież, in northern Greater Poland province, the so far unknown site of the fall of a German V-2 rocket fired from the Heidekraut training ground, from a distance of 108 kilometres, has been located. Analysis of the finds, the appearance of the fall site and GPR surveys lead to the conclusion that a version of the rocket with little or no explosive material exploded in Chodzież. The current state of research into the active use of the Heidenkraut training ground at the end of the War leads to the conclusion that the Chodzież region, located in northern Greater Poland, was a zone of not very intensive experimental firing of V-2 rockets. Much more intensive was the firing of the Kalisz region located in southeastern Greater Poland. Further research into the sites of V-2 rocket falls both in Greater Poland and in other parts of Poland may contribute to a better understanding of the poorly known German experiments with ballistic missiles. The Polish lands are particularly interesting in this regard, as they were training grounds for rocket experiments at the end of World War II.

Investigation of bacterial diversity from hybrid water sources to multiple terminal sites on an isolated island in the south China sea

Isolated islands are vulnerable to shortages in water availability, necessitating the use of hybrid water sources. There is a knowledge gap of unknown microbial diversity in the hybrid sources. The present study collected water samples from different water sources and water treatment processes on an isolated island in the South China Sea to explore microbial diversity in a full-element hybrid water supply system and analyze the effects of environmental factors. The primary conclusions were as follows: (a) Currently, chemical indices generally pass the WHO standards, except for high pH levels. (b) The driving factors for microbial diversity followed the order of type of source water > temperature > UV254 > turbidity > materials of containers > oxidation-reduction potential > pH > OD600 > ion concentration. Microbial dissimilarity was primarily affected by temperature and organic matter, while distribution distance had a slight effect on the dissimilarity in the small-scale ecosystem. (c) Biological and chemical safety standards restrict the application of atmospheric water using metal-organic frameworks while the balance of water influences the exploitation of freshwater lenses on the isolated island.

The application of UAV-derived SfM-MVS photogrammetry for the investigation of storm wave boulder deposits on a small rocky island in the semi-enclosed Northern Adriatic Sea

The inventory and categorization of an extensive coastal boulder assemblage originating from storm wave transport on the coastline of Fenoliga Island (Northern Adriatic Sea, southern Istria, Croatia) are presented and discussed herein. The study adopted the use of a commercial Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Structure from Motion-MultiView Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry for the construction of a 3D model of the island. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and an orthomosaic were produced and employed for the mapping of the boulder assemblage in a GIS. In total, 592 boulders were identified and mapped. Using SfM-MVS-derived products allowed for the identified boulders to be categorized based on size classification. Amassed data relating to the boulder characteristics was inserted and stored in a GIS, including the results of a comparative assessment with historical Google Earth imagery which enabled the ‘quantification of boulder transport over a 9-year timeframe’. Field evidence indicates that boulders were created in-situ via the quarrying of bedrock strata by breaking waves causing increased water pressure within preexisting surfaces of weakness such as bedding planes and sub-vertical fractures. Once detached, the boulders were transported and deposited during storm wave events. Repeated storm events can further displace previously detached clasts.