Sea Dumping Research Articles

Vietnam’s regulations on sea dumping: Outstanding issues and suggestions for improvement

Sea dumping in Vietnam has been a common practice for several years but has only been managed by dumping permits since the Law on Marine and Island Resources and Environment (LMIRE) came into force in 2016. However, the management of sea dumping in Vietnam faces certain limitations, despite its obligations under treaties and the need for sea dumping is likely to increase in the coming years. This article reviews the current regulations in place by utilizing a variety of primary (i.e., LMIRE and other laws) and secondary sources (e.g., official reports by the Ministries) as well as the black-letter approach to make some suggestions for Vietnam on improving the effectiveness of sea dumping management. It points out that the definition of sea dumping and the "allowing sea dumping" approach under current Vietnam's regulations are incompatible with relevant treaties. It also identifies other constraints related to the shortcoming of the regulations on planning for sea dumping sites, the absence of technical regulations for materials considered for dumping, and the complex administrative procedure for obtaining a sea dumping permit. Accessing relevant treaties and amending some ineffective regulations are solutions for Vietnam to solve these limitations.

Fifty years of sewage sludge management research: Mapping researchers' motivations and concerns

Sewage sludge management is torn between a desire for pollution prevention and reuse of a valuable resource. Reconciling these interests in sustainable management is a challenge for researchers. This study focuses on how research on sewage sludge management practices has evolved and scrutinizes how this research is interlinked with concerns and societal issues such as contaminants, economic efficiency, and legislation. Based on published academic papers on sewage sludge management between 1971 and 2019, this study found four trends in research focused on sewage sludge management: a decreasing interest in disposal (landfilling and sea dumping), a dominant interest in land application, a growing interest in sewage sludge as product, and a stable interest in energy recovery. Research on disposal focuses on increasing sludge volumes, legislative changes, and economic challenges with an interest in waste co-treatment. Research on land application concerns nutrient use and contaminants, mainly heavy metals. Research on sewage sludge as a product focuses on the extraction of certain resources and less on use of sewage sludge specifically. Research on energy recovery of sewage sludge focuses on volume reduction rather than contaminants. Two-thirds of the papers are detailed studies aiming to improve single technologies and assessing single risks or benefits. As management of sewage sludge is multifaceted, the narrow focus resulting from detailed studies promotes some concerns while excluding others. Therefore, this study highlights potential gaps such as the combination of nutrient use and disposal and energy recovery and nutrient use.

Acute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna

Sea dumping of chemical warfare (CW) took place worldwide during the 20th century. Submerged CW included metal bombs and casings that have been exposed for 50–100 years of corrosion and are now known to be leaking. Therefore, the arsenic-based chemical warfare agents (CWAs), pose a potential threat to the marine ecosystems. The aim of this research was to support a need for real-data measurements for accurate risk assessments and categorization of threats originating from submerged CWAs. This has been achieved by providing a broad insight into arsenic-based CWAs acute toxicity in aquatic ecosystems.Standard tests were performed to provide a solid foundation for acute aquatic toxicity threshold estimations of CWA: Lewisite, Adamsite, Clark I, phenyldichloroarsine (PDCA), CWA-related compounds: TPA, arsenic trichloride and four arsenic-based CWA degradation products.Despite their low solubility, during the 48 h exposure, all CWA caused highly negative effects on Daphnia magna. PDCA was very toxic with 48 h D. magna LC50 at 0.36 μg × L−1 and Lewisite with EC50 at 3.2 μg × L−1. Concentrations at which no immobilization effects were observed were slightly above the analytical Limits of Detection (LOD) and Quantification (LOQ). More water-soluble CWA degradation products showed no effects at concentrations up to 100 mg × L−1.

Contaminated by war: A brief history of sea-dumping of munitions

Munitions introduced to the sea during military activities, including naval combat and mine warfare represent only a fraction of military material present in seas and oceans. Huge amounts of obsolete conventional munitions and chemical munitions were dumped to the sea until 1975, when London convention put a stop of sea dumping. Such munitions are a threat for maritime workers, but also for environment. Corroding shells release toxic degradation products to sediments and bottom water, and unlike other contaminants, they cannot be reduced by land measures. Only removal of source can reduce the contamination. Much work has been done in the last decade, and mechanisms of toxicity and bioaccumulation are being recognized, as well as transport and spreading mechanisms. The full assessment of the risk associated with munitions now depends on broad application of developed techniques.

Deepwater ocean outfalls: A sustainable solution for sewage discharge for mega-coastal cities (Sydney, Australia): Influence of deepwater ocean outfalls on shelf sediment chemistry

A cliff-face disposal system discharging approximately 940 ML/day, or 80% of sewage generated by the City of Sydney (Australia) (population 3.3 million) was replaced by three deepwater ocean outfalls in the early 1990s. Enrichment of anthropogenic chemicals from cliff-face discharges raised concerns regarding long-term accumulation of sewage particulates and associated contaminants in offshore sediments and for reduced beach water quality. The current post-commissioning investigation detected a southward gradient of sediment fining and increased total organic carbon in the study region. Deepwater ocean discharges have not contributed to an accumulation of fines, or to increased metallic/nonmetallic chemicals of concern with no elevated risk of adverse biological effects beyond pre-commissioning conditions. Instead, the best modelled relationship was recorded between benthic infauna and sedimentary fines and not to contaminants. Historic sea dumping prior to 1932 in the north of the study area has resulted in enrichment of some non-bioavailable sedimentary metals.

Characterizing the paper industry sludge for environmentally-safe disposal

The world paper industry produces a great amount of industrial solid waste that undergoes a treatment process that can be either primary, secondary, or tertiary, in order to adapt the waste for correct disposal. The paper manufacturing industries search for the best way to dispose of their wastes, generally in landfills, but there are few studies proving the effectiveness of such measure from the environmental, technological and economic points of view. Knowing the characteristics of this waste and understanding the treatment process it is submitted to are fundamental issues to manage it and comply with environmental demands. The purpose of this paper is to perform a chemical, mineralogical, thermal, morphological, physical and environmental characterization of the paper and pulp industry wastes, in order to assess alternatives for their adequate disposal, such as controlled landfills, sanitation, incineration, and sea dumping. It was observed that the material presents physical, chemical, and morphological features that indicate the possibility of reusing it in other production chains, such as the ceramic industry, besides being classified as non-hazardous wastes. Furthermore, disposal in sanitary landfills presents advantages in environmental and technological terms.

Save the Reef! Civic Crowdfunding and Public Interest Environmental Litigation

<h2><em><span>This article looks at the emerging area of civic crowdfunding, a subset of crowdfunding, as a means of financing public interest environmental litigation. The literature surrounding civic crowdfunding and third party litigation funding is currently underdeveloped. The link between those areas and public interest environmental litigation takes a further step into the unknown. As a case study, the Sea Dumping Case presents exciting opportunities for civil society and access to justice, but further research is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn.</span></em></h2>

암모니아 센서를 이용한 간헐폭기 Membrane bioreactor공정에서의 전력비 저감과 관형막을 이용한 슬러지 농축에 관한 연구

It is essential to decrease energy consumption and excess sludge to economically operate sewage treatment plant. This becomes more important along with a ban on sea dumping and exhaustion of resource. Therefore, many researchers have been study on energy consumption reduction and strategies for minimization of excess sludge production from the activated sludge process. The aeration cost account for a high proportion of maintenance cost because sufficient air is necessary to keep nitrifying bacteria activity of which the oxygen affinity is inferior to that of heterotrophic bacteria. Also, additional costs are incurred to stabilize excess sludge and decrease the volume of sludge. There were anoxic, aerobic, membrane, deairation and concentration zone in this MBR process. Continuous aeration was provided to prevent membrane fouling in membrane zone and intermittent aeration was provided in aerobic zone through ammonia sensor. So, there was the minimum oxygen to remove below limited quantity that could be eliminated in membrane zone. As the result of this control, energy consumption of aeration system declined by between 10.4 % and 19.1 %. Besides, we could maintain high MLSS concentration in concentration zone and this induced the microorganisms to be in starved condition. Consequentially, the amount of excess sludge decrease by about 15 %.

Health and Environmental Threats Associated with the Destruction of Chemical Weapons

Still existing arsenals of chemical weapons (CW) pose not only security threats for possible use in hostilities by state actors or misuse by terrorists but also safety threats to humans and biota due to leakages and possible accidents. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) commits the States Parties (SPs) to destroy CW using technologies taking into consideration human health and environmental protection. It does not allow methods, routinely used up to the 1970s, such as earth burial, open-pit burning, and sea dumping. Long-term health and environmental threats and some accidents that have already occurred in the known localities of the sea-dumped and earth-buried arsenals of Nazi-German armed forces in the Baltic Region and of Imperial Japanese forces in the Far East Region are analyzed according to the impact of major CW and ammunition types (i.e., sulfur mustard--HD, tabun--GA, arsenicals--DA, DC, DM, arsine oil, and chloroacetophenone--CN). Any possible operations and handling with CW envisaged by the CWC as well as their verification are summarized taking into account the health threat they pose. CW and toxic armament waste to be destroyed and applied technologies (both developed and under current use in operational CW destruction facilities [CWDF]) are reviewed as are systems of health safety and environmental protection of the destruction/demilitarization stems from the extraordinary high toxicity of supertoxic lethal agents in man and biota. Problems of currently used Russian and U.S. standards for maximum allowable workplace concentrations and general population limits and possibilities of their determination by available analytical instrumentation are discussed.

Growth of Plants on TBT-contaminated Harbour Sludge and Effect on TBT Removal (10 pp)

Worldwide, large amounts of sediments have to be dredged annually from waterways and harbours. These sediments are sometimes polluted with a variety of toxic compounds. In some countries, including Belgium, the load with the biocide tributyltin (TBT) from ship coatings prohibits the dumping of harbour sludge into the sea. Land-based dumping is a commonly used alternative. This research investigated the feasibility to use land-deposited harbour sludge for plant production. In a field trial, the growth of 38 more or less salt-tolerant plant species on low and high TBT-contaminated sediments was studied. The elimination of TBT from sludge with and without vegetation was compared. The uptake of TBT and its degradation products di- and monobutyltin (DBT and MBT) into harvest products under field conditions was determined. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: Sediments dredged in May 2003 from the brackish waters of the port of Antwerp were analysed in the laboratory for soil texture, pH, electroconductivity, sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, ammonium, nitrate, total nitrogen, chloride, sulphur and the organotins TBT, DBT and MBT. The sediments were lagooned for one year to dewater, desalinate and improve their structure. Salt-tolerant domestic and wild plants were selected and sown in May 2004. In August 2004, plants were harvested and the produced biomass was determined. Samples were taken from vegetated and non-vegetated top and bottom sediments and from plants growing above soil and analysed for TBT, DBT and MBT. The fresh sediments showed a good supply with nutrients and a neutral pH, but were rather saline (EC 14 mS cm(-1) of the saturated paste extract). The salinity decreased to 3.7 mS cm(-1) during lagoonation. The high and the low contaminated sediment had initially 43 and 1.6 mg TBT kg(-1) dry weight, respectively. Besides TBT, several other contaminants were present in the sediments at critical levels. The biomass production of the plant species from the field trial ranged from 0.2 to 13 tons dry mass per hectare. Plants performing excellently were barley, sorghum, rape seed, a clover/grass mix and reed. If at all, a positive influence of TBT on plant growth was seen. TBT was degraded significantly faster (>40%) below barley. The uptake of TBT, DBT and MBT into stem and leaves of reed, grass and clover was very low, but measurable and not related to concentrations in soil. No uptake of TBT or its metabolites into corn of barley was found. This study confirmed former results: the toxicity of TBT to higher plants is low, and even high levels in soils would not be a hindrance for crop production. The removal of TBT seemed to be increased by both lagooning and plant growth, although the target values for sea dumping in use in certain European countries were not reached. A plausible explanation for the faster degradation of TBT under vegetation is that oxygen is a limiting factor, and plants dewater the soil, thus aerating it. The uptake of the organotins TBT, DBT and MBT into harvest products is probably due to attached soil particles. To summarize, barley was the optimal species: it grew very well despite the salinity of the dredged sediments, it had a significantly positive effect on TBT removal; it showed no measurable uptake of TBT or the other butyltins into the harvested product; and it is a cash crop well established in European agriculture. The amounts of dredged sediments are high, and good soils are becoming increasingly rare. The feasibility of using dredged sediments for non-food production, such as energy crops, should be investigated by a critical risk assessment.

Application of biomarkers for assessing the biological impact of dredged materials in the Mediterranean: the relationship between antioxidant responses and susceptibility to oxidative stress in the red mullet ( Mullus barbatus)

In the period 1997–2000, approximately 1,800,000 m 3 of material dredged from the Port of Leghorn was discharged into a sea dumping site located 14 miles from the coast. The red mullet ( Mullus barbatus) was used as a bioindicator species for monitoring the biological impact of these discharges on a geographical and temporal scale. Organisms were sampled over three years (1998–2000) at different stations and several biomarkers, both of exposure and effect, were analyzed. Bioavailability of specific classes of pollutants was evaluated by analyzing levels of metallothioneins, the activity of cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) and of glutathione S-transferases. Among biomarkers of effect, special attention was paid to the balance between prooxidant challenge and antioxidant defenses, and to the appearance of damage caused by oxidative stress. The analyses of the main components of the antioxidant system included superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidases, glutathione reductase, glyoxalase I and II, and total glutathione. These data were integrated with the measurement of total oxyradical scavenging capacity (TOSC) as an indication of the overall biological resistance to toxicity of different forms of oxyradicals (peroxyl radicals, hydroxyl radicals and peroxynitrite). Results indicated a biological impact in organisms sampled near the disposal site; the impact was particularly evident during 1999 and mainly related to organic chemicals such as PAH. Exposure to these pollutants also caused variations in the levels and activity of several antioxidants. The analysis of TOSC, however, revealed that the overall capacity of specific tissues of organisms to absorb various oxidants was not seriously compromised when challenged with increased prooxidant pressures. Variations of single antioxidants were useful in revealing early warning “biological responses”, while integration with TOSC analyses indicated if such changes also reflect a more integrated and functional “biological effect” with possible consequences at the organisms level. The red mullet appears to be a useful sentinel species for a biomarker approach to monitoring impact caused by dredged materials.

Investigation of Sludge Waste Incineration in a Novel Rotating Fluidized Bed Incinerator

New regulations in the United Kingdom have forbidden sea dumping since December 1998, and in the near future new incinerators will be required to dispose of about five million wet tonnes of sewage sludge per year. A research programme is being carried out at the Sheffield University Waste Incineration Centre (SUWIC) to design and operate a novel high-efficiency rotating fluidized bed (RFB) incinerator suitable for burning large quantities of sewage sludge. Incineration experiments carried out in a 200 mm ID rotating fluidized bed have demonstrated that the novel RFB technology is well suited to the incineration of sludge waste. Pre-dried chicken waste pellets, with similar characteristics to sewage sludge, were used as a sewage sludge surrogate. Water was added to the dry sludge pellets to generate the required moisture content. Results from this study showed that the sludge thoughput for the RFB incinerator was significantly higher than the conventional fluidized bed incinerator. It was found that the bed hydrodynamics were critical for the sludge incineration process in the RFB and design of the distributor plate had a strong effect on the quality of bed mixing, and hence on the sludge incinceration process.

The Challenge of Old Chemical Munitions and Toxic Armament Wastes

In October 1993, eighteen experts from ten countries met in Munster, Germany at the German NBC Defence Research Establishment to discuss various aspects of the problem of old chemical munitions and toxic armament wastes. This volume, that conference, and the research project from which both grew were supported by the Volkswagen Foundation. This comprehensive study covers: characteristics of chemical warfare agents and toxic armament wastes, their detoxification, deterioration and degradation; technical approaches to them; past chemical weapon (CW) production activities; CW disposal and destruction; sea dumping of CW; and legal issues related to old chemical munitions and toxic armament wastes.

Environmental issues of energetic materials: A U.K. perspective

Research on environmental problems encountered in the production, formulation, use and disposal of energetic munitions is driven by current and projected future legislation. In turn, legislation is being driven by public perception and pressure groups. With the ban on sea dumping and pressures to ban open burning the main concern at present is disposal of the “end of life” stockpile. U.K. research effort on disposal is further influenced by both the available funding and the size of the U.K. problem. Controlled incineration is being implemented and a munitions destruction facility based on this has been commissioned. For the longer term there is an increasing research effort in the production of munitions by cleaner methods and processes for the control and treatment of effluent streams. There is strong commitment by the U.K. Ministry of Defence to address environmental issues and an Ordnance Board Proceeding “Design for Disposal” has been published. This is a far reaching proposal which places full life cycle responsibility on the procurer i.e. purchasing office in the U.K. MOD. Design for Disposal is a comprehensive strategy which considers all aspects of the life of munitions from design, through production to eventual disposal.

A Retrospect of Anthropogenic Radioactivity in the Global Marine Environment

Man-made radionuclides were introduced into the marine environment in the mid forties with the exploitation of nuclear fission for military purposes. Plutonium production reactors at Hanford, USA, released radioactivity to the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia River. In the former Soviet Union (FSU) the military nuclear establishment at Cheliabinsk (later MAYAK) a few years later began direct discharging of fission products to the nearby Techa River, which is a part of the Ob river system, and the Arctic Ocean received man made radioactivity. In the 1950s, when atmospheric testing of thermonuclear weapons commenced, the world ocean became radioactively contaminated. The atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons peaked in the early 1960s and so did the radioactive contamination of the world ocean. In the mid 1970s the authorised liquid discharges, first of all of 137 Cs, from the nuclear reprocessing plant Sellafield in the UK reached a maximum and in the following years this signal could be traced all over the NE Atlantic. It was also in the 1970s that the international NEA studies of the radiological impact of sea dumping began. In 1985 the European Union initiated the so-called MARINA project in order to assess the radiological exposure from radioactivity in North European marine waters. In 1986 the Chemobyl accident occurred and the Baltic and the Black Seas in particular were contaminated. In the 1990s military dumping activities carried out previously by the FSU in the Arctic Ocean have been in focus. The IAEA's IASAP study has evaluated the radiological consequences of these dumpings. In a recent international study (MARDOS) by the IAEA it was concluded that the doses to man from anthropogenic radionuclides in the marine environment are generally one to two orders of magnitude less than the doses from such radionuclides in the terrestrial environment.

Incineration of Wastes in Novel High-Efficiency Tumbling and Rotating Fluidized Bed Incinerator

At the present time, the sewage treatment plants in the United Kingdom produce about 25,000,000 t of sewage sludge each year at a concentration of 4 solids. New regulations in the United Kingdom forbid sea dumping, and in the near future new incinerators will be required to dispose of about 5,000,000 t per year. The research program at the Sheffield University consisted of design and construction of a small-scale cylindrical rotating fluidized bed incinerator with an inside diameter of 200 mm and an axial length of up to 200 mm. The fluidizing medium was silica sand (0.6–0.7 mm) and the bed depth 30–50 mm. The rotational speed of the bed varied between 100 and 1,000 rpm (which produced 1–100 g loading). Coal, oil, sewage sludge, and chicken manure (biomass) were burnt in the bed at temperatures between 700° and 900°C. Measurements of heat transfer rate, bed temperature, and exhaust gas composition were carried out over a range of operating conditions. The influence of rotational forces on basic fluidizati...

Biological Treatment of Shochu Distillery Wastewater

An efficient method for the treatment of distillery wastewater from shochumaking, which has high organic matters and suspended solids, must be developed as soon as possible as an alternative to sea dumping. First of all, Aspergillus awamori var. kawachi was cultivated aerobically at 35 o C for a day in a 30-litre jarfermentor rworking volume; 18 litres) with an agitator, using the distillery wastewater as a medium. The specific resistance of the cultivated broth drastically decreasedfrom 1.17×10 13 m kg -1 to 2.82×10 11 m kg -1 , which facilitated filtration. The concentrations of BOD and PO 4 3- in the filtrate of the cultivated broth also decreased drastically to 4400 and 235 mg litre -1 , respectively. After the filtrate was diluted three times with tap water, it was treated by an anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor at 37 o C. By addition of Ni 2+ and Co 2+ to the diluted wastewater, the maximum volumetric TOC loading rate of 22 g litre -1 day -1 could be achieved. However, the concentration of NH 4 + increased up to 1800 mg liter -1 during the anaerobic treatment. The NH 4 + was removed easily in a denitnfication reactor by using volatile fatty acids remaining during the anaerobic treatment as electron donors. The quality of effluent from a nitrification reactor was suitable to be discharged to a river

Biological treatment of Schochu distillery wastewater

An efficient method for the treatment of distillery wastewater from Shochumaking, which has high organic matters and suspended solids, must be developed as soon as possible as an alternative to sea dumping. First of all, Aspergillus awamori var. kawachi was cultivated aerobically at 35°C for a day in a 30-litre jar-fermentor (working volume; 18 litres) with an agitator, using the distillery wastewater as a medium. The specific resistance of the cultivated broth drastically decreased from 1.17×10 13 m kg −1 to 2.82×10 11 m kg −1, which facilitated filtration. The concentrations of BOD and PO 3− 4 in the filtrate of the cultivated broth also decreased drastically to 48 400 and 235 litre −1, respectively. After the filtrate was diluted three times with tap water, it was treated by an anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor at 37°C. By addition of Ni 2+ and Co 2+ to the diluted wastewater the maximum volumetric TOC loading rate of 22 g litre −1 day −1 could be achieved. However, the concentration of NH + 4 increased up to 1800 mg litre −1 during the anaerobic treatment. The NH + 4 was removed easily in a denitrification reactor by using volatile fatty acids remaining during the anaerobic treatment as electron donors. The quality of effluent from a nitrification reactor was suitable to be discharged to a river.

特集 シンポジウム「旧ソ連による放射性物質の海洋投棄と我が国の対応」 旧ソ連・ロシアによる放射性廃棄物の海洋投棄に関する我が国の対応 特に海洋調査について

特集 シンポジウム「旧ソ連による放射性物質の海洋投棄と我が国の対応」 旧ソ連・ロシアによる放射性廃棄物の海洋投棄に関する我が国の対応 特に海洋調査について

特集 シンポジウム「旧ソ連による放射性物質の海洋投棄と我が国の対応」 旧ソ連及びロシアによる放射性廃棄物の海洋投棄

特集 シンポジウム「旧ソ連による放射性物質の海洋投棄と我が国の対応」 旧ソ連及びロシアによる放射性廃棄物の海洋投棄