Schottky Barrier Contacts Research Articles

Temperature-Dependent Transport in Ultrathin Black Phosphorus Field-Effect Transistors.

We studied the temperature-dependent transport properties of ultrathin black phosphorus (BP). We present measurements of BP Schottky barrier (SB) metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect-transistors (MOSFETs) with various channel lengths, constructed from a single BP sample with nanoscale uniformity in thickness and width. The electrical characterization reveals a reversal in the temperature dependence of drain current as a function of gate voltage. This reversal indicates a transition in the charge conduction limiting mechanisms as the device is swept from the off-state into the on-state. In the off-state, charge transport is limited by thermionic emission over the energy barriers at the source/drain SB contacts, and drain current increases with temperature. In the on-state, carriers can easily tunnel across the SB at the contacts, and charge transport is limited by scattering in the channel. As a result, drain current decreases with temperature in the on-state, as scattering increases with temperature. Using Landauer transport theory, we derive a closed-form expression for thermionic emission current in SB-MOSFETs with two-dimensional channels. We use this expression to extract the SB height at metal contact interface with BP and demonstrate the impact of scattering on the extraction. We then use a comprehensive BP SB-MOSFET model to analyze on-state current as a function of temperature and demonstrate the effects of charged impurity and phonon scattering on the transport properties of BP through extractions of mobility at fixed carrier density.

Coulomb scattering mechanism transition in 2D layered MoTe2: effect of high-κ passivation and Schottky barrier height

Clean interface and low contact resistance are crucial requirements in two-dimensional (2D) materials to preserve their intrinsic carrier mobility. However, atomically thin 2D materials are sensitive to undesired Coulomb scatterers such as surface/interface adsorbates, metal-to-semiconductor Schottky barrier (SB), and ionic charges in the gate oxides, which often limits the understanding of the charge scattering mechanism in 2D electronic systems. Here, we present the effects of hafnium dioxide (HfO2) high-κ passivation and SB height on the low-frequency (LF) noise characteristics of multilayer molybdenum ditelluride (MoTe2) transistors. The passivated HfO2 passivation layer significantly suppresses the surface reaction and enhances dielectric screening effect, resulting in an excess electron n-doping, zero hysteresis, and substantial improvement in carrier mobility. After the high-κ HfO2 passivation, the obtained LF noise data appropriately demonstrates the transition of the Coulomb scattering mechanism from the SB contact to the channel, revealing the significant SB noise contribution to the 1/f noise. The substantial excess LF noise in the subthreshold regime is mainly attributed to the excess metal-to-MoTe2 SB noise and is fully eliminated at the high drain bias regime. This study provides a clear insight into the origin of electronic signal perturbation in 2D electronic systems.

Modulating Schottky Barrier of MoS2 to Enhance Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Activity by Incorporating with Vertical Graphene Nanosheets Derived from Organic Liquid Waste

AbstractThe lack of theoretical understanding of the reaction kinetics and the overall electrochemical system of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is the major bottleneck for the design of highly efficient electrocatalysts. Here, we demonstrate that the current barrier between catalyst and current collector is strongly influencing the kinetic activation barrier at the catalyst‐electrolyte interface, and thus, equally important for the overall HER activity. Modulating the current collector/catalyst interface via introducing a layer of vertical graphene nanosheets (VGNS) derived from organic liquid waste is proposed as a feasible modification to lower the current barrier, while applying the concept of waste valorization. Benefiting from the intrinsically good electronic conductivity and low contact resistance at heterojunctions, VGNS plays an effective role in modulating the Schottky barrier contact to enhance HER activity. The enhancing effect is investigated by combining characterization, electrochemical measurements and density functional theory (DFT) calculation. By incorporating MoS2 with VGNS, the overpotential is reduced by ∼50 mV with a Tafel slope of 38 mV per decade. This is in accordance with the reduction of Schottky barrier height (SBH) from 0.52 to 0.23 eV in the model. Our results provide a new perspective into the role of Schottky barrier (contact resistance) on the activity origin of HER, which facilitates to establish a rational guidance for optimizing future electrocatalysts.

Lowering the Schottky Barrier Height by Graphene/Ag Electrodes for High-Mobility MoS2 Field-Effect Transistors.

2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) have emerged as promising candidates for post-silicon nanoelectronics owing to their unique and outstanding semiconducting properties. However, contact engineering for these materials to create high-performance devices while adapting for large-area fabrication is still in its nascent stages. In this study, graphene/Ag contacts are introduced into MoS2 devices, for which a graphene film synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is inserted between a CVD-grown MoS2 film and a Ag electrode as an interfacial layer. The MoS2 field-effect transistors with graphene/Ag contacts show improved electrical and photoelectrical properties, achieving a field-effect mobility of 35 cm2 V-1 s-1 , an on/off current ratio of 4 × 108 , and a photoresponsivity of 2160 A W-1 , compared to those of devices with conventional Ti/Au contacts. These improvements are attributed to the low work function of Ag and the tunability of graphene Fermi level; the n-doping of Ag in graphene decreases its Fermi level, thereby reducing the Schottky barrier height and contact resistance between the MoS2 and electrodes. This demonstration of contact interface engineering with CVD-grown MoS2 and graphene is a key step toward the practical application of atomically thin TMDC-based devices with low-resistance contacts for high-performance large-area electronics and optoelectronics.

The Role of Nonidealities in the Scaling of MoS2 FETs

2-D material FETs hold the promise of excellent gate control, but the impact of nonidealities on their performance remains poorly understood. This is because of the need, so far, to use computationally intensive nonequilibrium Green’s function (NEGF) simulations. Here, we therefore use a semiclassical model to investigate the role of nonidealities in the scaling of back-gated (BG) and top-gated (TG) monolayer MoS2 FETs. We verify the electrostatics and transport of the semiclassical model with density functional theory-based NEGF simulations and calibrate nonidealities, such as interface traps ( ${D}_{\textsf {it}}$ ) and Schottky contact barrier height ( $\phi _{\textsf {SB}}$ ) to experimental monolayer and bilayer MoS2 FETs. We find that among the nonidealities, ${D}_{\textsf {it}}$ has the strongest subthreshold swing impact with 70 mV/dec obtainable in BG devices for a ${D}_{\textsf {it}}$ of $5\times {10}^{11}$ cm−2eV $^{-1}$ , an equivalent oxide thickness (EOT) of 1 nm, and a channel length ( ${L}_{\textsf {ch}}$ ) of 5 nm. For scaled EOT, $\phi _{\textsf {SB}}$ only strongly impacts ${I}_{ \mathrm{\scriptscriptstyle ON}}$ for the TG case, as the overlapping gate thins the Schottky barriers in the BG case. We show in TG devices that a spacer of only 5 nm results in a 1000-fold drop in ${I}_{ \mathrm{\scriptscriptstyle ON}}$ because of the nonidealities. We propose positive spacer oxide charge as a solution and show that a charge density of above 1013 cm−2 is required to fully recover the device performance.

Highly transparent light emitting diodes on graphene encapsulated Cu nanowires network

The internal quantum efficiency of blue LEDs is almost close to the limit, therefore, advanced transparent electrode has been long explored for gaining high external quantum efficiency. However, work function mismatch at electrode-semiconductor interface remains the fundamental difficulty in obtaining low resistance ohmic contact. Here, we demonstrate the gas phase encapsulation of graphene layer on superfine Cu nanowires network by chemical vapor deposition for highly transparent LEDs. The fast encapsulation of graphene shell layer on Cu nanowires achieves high optoelectronic performance (33 Ω/sq @ 95% T), broad transparency range (200~3000 nm) and strong antioxidant stability. A novel phenomenon of scattered-point contact is revealed at the Cu nanowires/GaN interface. Point discharge effect is found to produce locally high injection current through contact points, which can effectively overcome Schottky barrier and form ohmic contact. The transparent LED on Cu@graphene nanowire network is successfully lighted with bright blue emission.

Two-Dimensional Materials Inserted at the Metal/Semiconductor Interface: Attractive Candidates for Semiconductor Device Contacts.

Metal-semiconductor junctions are indispensable in semiconductor devices, but they have recently become a major limiting factor precluding device performance improvement. Here, we report the modification of a metal/n-type Si Schottky contact barrier by the introduction of two-dimensional (2D) materials of either graphene or hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) at the interface. We realized the lowest specific contact resistivities (ρc) of 3.30 nΩ cm2 (lightly doped n-type Si, ∼ 1015/cm3) and 1.47 nΩ cm2 (heavily doped n-type Si, ∼ 1021/cm3) via 2D material insertion are approaching the theoretical limit of 1.3 nΩ cm2. We demonstrated the role of the 2D materials at the interface in achieving a low ρc value by the following mechanisms: (a) 2D materials effectively form dipoles at the metal-2D material (M/2D) interface, thereby reducing the metal work function and changing the pinning point, and (b) the fully metalized M/2D system shifts the pinning point toward the Si conduction band, thus decreasing the Schottky barrier. As a result, the fully metalized M/2D system using atomically thin and well-defined 2D materials shows a significantly reduced ρc. The proposed 2D material insertion technique can be used to obtain extremely low contact resistivities in metal/n-type Si systems and will help to achieve major performance improvements in semiconductor technologies.

Influence of Oxygen Deficiency on the Rectifying Behavior of Transparent-Semiconducting-Oxide–Metal Interfaces

Schottky-barrier contacts to amorphous semiconducting oxides are essential building blocks for transparent, flexible, low-cost electronics, but rectification is typically insufficient, unless an oxygen-plasma surface treatment or a reactive deposition of the contact metal is employed. This study of inertly and reactively sputtered Schottky contacts on zinc tin oxide, aimed at identifying the mechanisms governing contact formation, reveals that migration of oxygen alters carrier density in the vicinity of the interface, and with it the diode's rectification. A general, step-by-step recipe for high-performance Schottky-barrier diodes on transparent semiconducting oxides is included.

Tunable phase stability and contact resistance of monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides contacts with metal

Monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides/metal (MX2/metal) based transistors have been widely studied. However, further development is hindered by the large contact resistance between MX2 and metal contact. In this paper, we demonstrated that interfacial charge transfer between MX2 and metal is the key for tuning contact resistance. With the lattice misfit criterion applied to screen combination of MX2s and metals, it has been found out that both phase stability of MX2 and contact nature between MX2 and metal will be sensitively affected by interfacial charge transfer. Additionally, we have identified seven MX2/metal systems that can potentially form zero Schottky barrier contacts utilizing phase engineering. On base of interfacial charge calculations and contact resistance analysis, we have presented three types of MX2/metal contacts that can be formed with distinguished contact resistance. Our theoretical results not only demonstrate various choice of MX2/metal designs in order to achieve different amounts of interfacial charge transfer as well as manipulate contact resistance, but also shed light on designing ohmic contacts in MX2/metal systems.

Measurement of Two Dimensional Van Der Waals Materials' Bandgap Using Ambipolar Field Effect Transistor with Graphene Contact and hBN Passivation

Two dimensional (2D) semiconductor materials haven been extensively studied for the last decade, regarded as one kind of the most important breakthrough materials toward future device technologies. Band gap of monolayer and few layer in 2D semiconductors has been reported, measured by optical probing such as photoluminescence (PL). However, if their exfoliated thickness is as large as multilayer over 10 layers (10L), PL measurements become less effective and inaccurate because the optical transition of 2D semiconductor is changed from direct to indirect mode. At the moment, the energy band gap also becomes smaller with the semiconductir thickness. In fact, for thick multilayer 2D semiconductors, practical band gap measurement is very difficult due to lack of measurementment technique, so that density function theory (DFT)-based calculations might be only way to conjecture the bandgap. Here, we introduce another way to measure such bandgap of multilayer 2D semiconductors; that is using field effect transistor (FET) as a platform. We have thus fabricated FETs with multilayer 2D channel using graphene contact and top passivation for this study. Because graphene contact would secure ambipolar behavior and Schottky contact barrier tuning of FETs with the assitance of top passivation, bandgap measurement was successfully carried out. Our FETs with WSe2, MoTe2, BP channel, show ambipolar behavior and their maximum Schottky barrier height are measured by temperature-dependent transfer curve characteristics. Bandgap values from WSe2 FET1, WSe2 FET2, MoTe2 FET, and BP FET were 1.16,1.44, 0.92, 0.42 eV, respectively obtained by twice the maximum Schottky barrier height. The values from WSe2 FETs were compared with those of PL measurement, to be confirmed for their compatibilities and according to literature, our values seems reasonable.

Morphology, stoichiometry, and crystal structure control via post-annealing for Pt–ZnO nanograin Schottky barrier interfaces

Nanointerfaces have attracted intensive research effort for advanced electronics due to their unique and tunable semiconducting properties made possible by metal-contacted oxide structures at the nanoscale. Although much work has been on the adjustment of fabrication parameters to achieve high-quality interfaces, little work has experimentally obtained the various correlations between material parameters and Schottky barrier electronic properties to accurately probe the underlying phenomenon. In this work, we investigate the control of Pt–ZnO nanograin interfaces properties by thermal annealing. Specifically, we quantitatively analyze the correlation between material parameters (such as surface morphology, crystallographic structure, and stoichiometry) and Schottky diode parameters (Schottky barrier height, ideality factor, and contact resistance). Results revealed strong dependencies of Schottky barrier characteristics on oxygen vacancies, surface roughness, grain density, d-spacing, and crystallite size. I-V-T data shows that annealing at 600 °C produces a nanograin based interface with the most rectifying diode characteristics. These dependencies, which have not been previously reported holistically, highlight the close relationship between material properties and Schottky barrier characteristics, and are instrumental for the performance optimization of nanostructured metal-semiconductor interfaces in advanced electronic devices.

Phosphorous doped p-type MoS2 polycrystalline thin films via direct sulfurization of Mo film

We report on the successful synthesis of a p-type, substitutional doping at S-site, MoS2 thin film using Phosphorous (P) as the dopant. MoS2 thin films were directly sulfurized for molybdenum films by chemical vapor deposition technique. Undoped MoS2 film showed n-type behavior and P doped samples showed p-type behavior by Hall-effect measurements in a van der Pauw (vdP) configuration of 10×10 mm2 area samples and showed ohmic behavior between the silver paste contacts. The donor and the acceptor concentration were detected to be ∼2.6×1015 cm-3 and ∼1.0×1019 cm-3, respectively. Hall-effect mobility was 61.7 cm2V-1s-1 for undoped and varied in the range of 15.5 ∼ 0.5 cm2V-1s-1 with P supply rate. However, the performance of field-effect transistors (FETs) declined by double Schottky barrier contacts where the region between Ni electrodes on the source/drain contact and the MoS2 back-gate cannot be depleted and behaves as a 3D material when used in transistor geometry, resulting in poor on/off ratio. Nevertheless, the FETs exhibit hole transport and the field-effect mobility showed values as high as the Hall-effect mobility, 76 cm2V-1s-1 in undoped MoS2 with p-type behavior and 43 cm2V-1s-1 for MoS2:P. Our findings provide important insights into the doping constraints for transition metal dichalcogenides.

Способ изготовления фотоэлемента, основанного на двух контактах Al-p-Si и Ti-p-Si с барьером Шоттки

Способ изготовления фотоэлемента, основанного на двух контактах Al-p-Si и Ti-p-Si с барьером Шоттки

Nature of carrier injection in metal/2D-semiconductor interface and its implications for the limits of contact resistance

Monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) exhibit excellent electronic and optical properties. However, the performance of these two-dimensional (2D) devices are often limited by the large resistance offered by the metal contact interface. Till date, the carrier injection mechanism from metal to 2D TMDC layers remains unclear, with widely varying reports of Schottky barrier height (SBH) and contact resistance (Rc), particularly in the monolayer limit. In this work, we use a combination of theory and experiments in Au and Ni contacted monolayer MoS2 device to conclude the following points: (i) the carriers are injected at the source contact through a cascade of two potential barriers - the barrier heights being determined by the degree of interaction between the metal and the TMDC layer; (ii) the conventional Richardson equation becomes invalid due to the multi-dimensional nature of the injection barriers, and using Bardeen-Tersoff theory, we derive the appropriate form of the Richardson equation that describes such composite barrier; (iii) we propose a novel transfer length method (TLM) based SBH extraction methodology, to reliably extract SBH by eliminating any confounding effect of temperature dependent channel resistance variation; (iv) we derive the Landauer limit of the contact resistance achievable in such devices. A comparison of the limits with the experimentally achieved contact resistance reveals plenty of room for technological improvements.

First principle study on the electronic properties and Schottky contact of graphene adsorbed on MoS2 monolayer under applied out-plane strain

In the present work, electronic properties and Schottky contact of graphene adsorbed on the MoS2 monolayer under applied out-plane strain are studied using density functional theory calculations. Our calculations show that weak van derpp Waals interactions between graphene and monolayer MoS2 are dominated at the interlayer distance of 3.34 Å and the binding energy per C atom of −25.1 meV. A narrow band gap of 3.6 meV has opened in G/MoS2 heterointerface, and it can be modulated by the out-plane strain. Furthermore, the Schottky barrier and Schottky contact types in the G/MoS2 heterointerface can be controlled by the out-plane strain. At the equilibrium state (d=3.34 Å), the intrinsic electronic structure of G/MoS2 heterointerface is well preserved and forms an n-type Schottky barrier of 0.49 eV. When the interlayer distance decreases, the transition from n-type to p-type Schottky contact occurs at d=2.74 Å. Our studies promote the application of ultrathin G/MoS2 heterointerface in the next-generation nanoelectronic and photonic devices such as van-der-Waals-based field effect transistors.

Analytical Drain Current Model of 1-D Ballistic Schottky-Barrier Transistors

A new analytical model based on the WKB approximation for MOSFET-like one-dimensional ballistic transistors with Schottky-Barrier contacts has been developed for the drain current. By using a proper approximation of both the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and transmission probability, an analytical solution for the Landauer integral was obtained, which overcomes the limitations of existing models and extends their applicability toward high bias voltages needed for analog applications. The simulations of transfer and output characteristics are found to be in agreement with the experimental data for sub-10-nm CNTFETs.

(Invited) 2-Dimensional Layered Materials for Si Technology

Two dimensional (2D) layered materials are crystalline materials with layered structures, including Graphene, h-BN, and Transition Metal Di-chalcogenides (TMD’s). Each of their layers is consisting of one or a few atomic layers and they form van der Waals interactions with neighboring layers. Recently, they have been studied intensively due to their extraordinary properties, such as, flexibility and transparency. In addition, they have exceptional electronic, optoelectronic, chemical and mechanical properties. For example, Graphene has high electron mobility, chemical inertness, and thermal conductivity, while TMD has high photo responsivity. Based on their properties, many potential applications were proposed and demonstrated. We have been investigated 2D layered materials for Si technology, but not for the active materials. We have focused 2D layered materials as interface materials due to the chemical inertness and their atomically thin nature. Especially, Graphene has been suggested as a promising material for future interconnects because of its unique electrical and chemical properties. For instance, they are good candidates for diffusion barrier.[1] Also, they are good candidates for interface materials between metal and Si to reduce the Schottky barrier heights and contact resistance in source and drain, which is one of the most critical issues for scaling down.[2] In this talk, we will cover and discuss the possibility of Graphene and other 2D layered materials for interconnects and contact resistance reducer in Si technology. In addition, we will also cover other potential applications based on 2D materials’ unique properties, such as, chemical inertness and atomic thick nature. [1] L.Li et al., “Verticle and lateral copper transport through graphene layer”, ACS Nano, 9 (8), pp. 8361-8367 (2015) [2] K.-E. Byun et al., “Graphene for true ohmic contact at metal-semiconductor junctions”, Nano Letters, 13 (9), pp. 4001-4005 (2013)

Effects of asymmetric Schottky contacts on photoresponse in tungsten diselenide (WSe2) phototransistor

We present an investigation of the effects of asymmetric contacts on the photoresponse of a thin film tungsten diselenide (WSe2) phototransistor. We observe different scenarios in photoresponse during gate modulation depending on the metal-semiconductor contacts through which majority carrier (hole) injection occurs. Under illumination, a peak in drain current is observed during gate modulation when hole injection occurs from the higher Schottky barrier contact. On the other hand, regular behavior in photoresponse during gate modulation is observed when hole injection occurs from the opposite direction, the lower Schottky barrier contact. Further, we analyze the possibilities of realizing WSe2 phototransistors with improved performance in terms of responsivity, response time, and detectivity by utilizing asymmetric contact engineering and proper gating. In addition, an interesting shift of the aforementioned peak is detected, with increasing incident light intensity during gate modulation. We demonstrate that this peak shift can be explained by the photogating effect caused by trapped charges.

Interface Electrode Morphology Effect on Carrier Concentration and Trap Defect Density in an Organic Photovoltaic Device.

Formation of Schottky barrier contact (SBC) leads reconstruction of charges at the metal/semiconductor (MS) interface because of the wave function overlap between semiconductor and metal contact. Not only is the Schottky barrier contact formation a signature of the material's work function, but also it is sensitive to the interface trap states, the crystal orientation of the interacting materials, and other interface properties. In this work, the effect of aluminum cathode morphology on the polymer Schottky diode and bulk heterojunction (BHJ) photovoltaic device performance is studied. The electron collecting contacts in Schottky diode and BHJ device have been deposited using aluminum in pellet and nanoparticle forms. Devices fabricated by using Al nanoparticle showed improvement in dark as well as photocurrent density. Significant enhancement in JSC leads to overall improved power conversion efficiency. Enhanced performance in Schottky structured diode and OPV device have been correlated with electrode microstructure and its interface properties such as improved electrically active contact and enhanced charge transport. Electrical conductivity is discussed based on enhanced electrical coherence across organic semiconductor and electrode interface. Therefore, the contribution of electrical enhancement leads to improvement in short-circuit current density (JSC) in BHJ solar cell which is due to reduced trap density. Further, PCE was correlated with the density of interface trap states studied by drive level capacitance profiling technique.

Van der Waals Bonded Co/h-BN Contacts to Ultrathin Black Phosphorus Devices

Because of the chemical inertness of two dimensional (2D) hexagonal-boron nitride (h-BN), few atomic-layer h-BN is often used to encapsulate air-sensitive 2D crystals such as black phosphorus (BP). However, the effects of h-BN on Schottky barrier height, doping, and contact resistance are not well-known. Here, we investigate these effects by fabricating h-BN encapsulated BP transistors with cobalt (Co) contacts. In sharp contrast to directly Co contacted p-type BP devices, we observe strong n-type conduction upon insertion of the h-BN at the Co/BP interface. First-principles calculations show that this difference arises from the much larger interface dipole at the Co/h-BN interface compared to the Co/BP interface, which reduces the work function of the Co/h-BN contact. The Co/h-BN contacts exhibit low contact resistances (∼4.5 kΩ) and are Schottky barrier-free. This allows us to probe high electron mobilities (4,200 cm2/(V s)) and observe insulator-metal transitions even under two-terminal measurement geometry.