School Psychology Training Programs Research Articles

Single-case design emphasis in American Psychological Association-accredited school psychology programs.

Single-case design (SCD) is an underutilized research methodology in school psychology literature. Despite its relevance to practitioners and applied intervention researchers alike, the majority of intervention research disseminated in school psychology journals tends to involve group designs, such as the randomized controlled trial. Group designs are useful for answering a wide variety of research questions but may not always be relevant to practitioners seeking procedures that work for their students or researchers seeking for the optimal design to answer their research questions. In comparison, the relative dearth of SCD studies in school psychology literature, in conjunction with common values among the field regarding data-based decision making and the scientist-practitioner model to training, raises questions about the cause of this gap. The present study sought to review doctoral training programs in school psychology and evaluate their relative emphasis on SCD in training. Seventy-six American Psychological Association-accredited school psychology programs were reviewed, and results indicated that roughly two thirds of programs do not emphasize SCD during training. Implications regarding school psychology training and research are discussed and recommendations are provided on future directions for school psychology trainers and researchers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A National Evaluation of Social Justice and Antiracism Within School Psychology Graduate Preparation Programs

As school psychologists, we have an ethical responsibility to engage in social justice and antiracist action. Specifically, graduate education programs have a significant role to play in preparing future school psychologists as social justice change agents. To facilitate effective change, graduate educators must confront potential biases in university training programs and themselves, act in culturally affirming ways, and commit to using psychological science to prepare future school psychologists to engage in advocacy and combat systemic racism within youth-serving systems. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore training efforts aimed at promoting social justice, antiracism, and multiculturalism consistent with best practices within school psychology training programs. Additionally, this study aimed to identify how programs and individual faculty members were responding to increasing calls for racial justice and social justice and the impact of the “dual pandemics” of COVID-19 and racism on their training efforts. Finally, the researchers sought to identify facilitators and barriers to training and pedagogy focused on social justice, antiracism, and multicultural issues in graduate psychology training programs. Impact Statement As graduate educators, we must examine the extent to which school psychology graduate preparation programs are using the multicultural, social justice and antiracist practices recommended in the literature. With proper training, school psychologists wield significant power in dismantling structural oppression and praxis in schools and strengthening the adoption and implementation of culturally relevant academic and social-emotional and behavioral supports. However, social justice awareness, knowledge, skills and dispositions need to be explicitly taught and cultivated as areas of competency. Graduate educators and accrediting bodies should focus on improving the quality of preservice training for school psychologists so they may successfully navigate the myriad challenges associated with systemic change and act as effective change agents in bringing about racial and social equity in schools. This study provides a snapshot of graduate training efforts in these areas to help in identifying current practices, needs, strengths and future directions for the field.

Addressing the Need for Training More School Psychologists to Serve Toddlers and Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has risen significantly in the past two decades. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of mental health providers who have specialized training in delivering evidenced-based services to this population. Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) is an evidenced-based treatment recommended for toddlers with ASD, and school psychologists are uniquely positioned to help children with ASD receive it. However, many school psychologists do not receive adequate training in this subspecialty. This paper makes recommendations to school psychology training programs about how to add or improve training in this subspecialty based on the results of an Office of Special Education Programs grant-funded ASD training program which involved collaboration between a NASP-approved and APA-accredited school psychology training program and a community-based early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) clinic. The grant supported development of an interdisciplinary didactic and clinical training program to increase the ASD knowledge, skills, and competencies of school psychology graduate students, with the broader goals of developing a replicable training model and increasing the workforce of trained providers for this underserved population. Fifteen graduate students completed the training program. Outcomes related to trainee knowledge, skills, and competencies, trainee satisfaction, and lessons learned over time analyzed within a logic model that guided the project’s development and execution can be informative for other school psychology programs undertaking training in this subspecialty.

Test use and assessment practices of school psychology training programs: Findings from a 2020 survey of US faculty

AbstractThe last comprehensive study to examine the assessment practices promoted by school psychology programs was published 25 years ago (i.e., Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Since then, significant changes to assessment theory and practice have occurred. Data from a 2020 survey of directors of school psychology programs were collected to gain an understanding of current graduate training in test use and assessment. Results were compared to a current survey of practitioners as well as past surveys of trainers. Results indicate that the assessment instruments used most frequently by practitioners tend to be those that are strongly emphasized in training programs. There were significant changes over time, most notably a large increase in the extent to which programs emphasize rating scales. Programs continue to strongly emphasize standardized, norm‐referenced tests, particularly tests of cognitive abilities and academic achievement. Programs also continue to emphasize behavioral observation methods. In contrast to our expectations, results also reveal a persistent emphasis on low‐value instruments such as projective tests. The implications of these findings for training and practice are discussed.

School Mental Health Trainees’ Perceptions of a Virtual Community-Based Partnership to Support Black Youth

This phenomenological study used individual interviews with ten graduate students in school counseling and school psychology to understand their experiences in a University-Church service-learning partnership to support PreK–12th grade youth in response to COVID-19. Most graduate participants identified as White/Non-Hispanic, and all youth served identified as Black. Hence, the study’s purpose was to examine participants’ (a) general perceptions of the program and (b) perceptions of how the program contributed to their multicultural competence and social justice-orientation. Findings reflect two broad themes for research aim one: (a) adaptive and holistic direct intervention skill development and (b) presence and connection with marginalized youth. Four broad themes emerged relative to research aim two: (a) multicultural attitudes and beliefs development, (b) multicultural knowledge development, (c) multicultural skill development, and (d) advocacy and allyship relative to social justice practice. Recommendations for school mental health training programs are offered. Impact Statement School psychology training programs have historically utilized community-based service-learning opportunities to cultivate graduate students’ multicultural competence and social justice-orientation. However, few studies have examined outcomes associated with service-learning training initiatives using online didactic training, telesupervision, and experiential learning through telehealth service delivery. Because COVID-19 has resulted in graduate programs exploring remote methods of training mental health trainees, key findings illustrate the benefits of virtual service-learning opportunities for facilitating school mental health trainees’ (including school psychology graduate students) capacity to provide accessible (i.e., telehealth), culture-centered academic, social–emotional, and behavioral support for minoritized families.

Integrating Social Justice Practices into Graduate Training: Collaborating with Stakeholders to Adapt Professional Development in Puerto Rico

Treating trauma has become an international social justice concern, with increasing numbers of graduate training programs prioritizing how to conceptualize needs and interventions within a trauma-informed framework. Minimal research and guidelines exist for adapting these trauma-informed practices for the local community context. Additionally, trauma-informed practices often fail to consider ongoing structural issues faced by oppressed communities such as poverty and racism. Social work, psychology, and counseling graduate training programs often rely on a cultural competency framework instead of a social justice framework that addresses racism and Whiteness. During our graduate Counseling and School Psychology training program at the University of Massachusetts Boston, we collaborated with stakeholders at a school and community center in San Juan, Puerto Rico to culturally adapt and deliver trainings in trauma-informed practices for staff using an ecological validity framework. Using our work in Puerto Rico as a case study, this paper addresses the cultural adaptation of trauma-informed practices and factors to consider when implementing trauma-informed practices, emphasizing the need for creating safety. Strategies for embedding this trauma-informed work into mental health graduate training programs and recommendations for working with individuals from marginalized groups in school settings are discussed.

Q-interactive: Training Implications for Accuracy and Technology Integration.

With the iPad-mediated cognitive assessment gaining popularity with school districts and the need for alternative modes for training and instruction during this COVID-19 pandemic, school psychology training programs will need to adapt to effectively train their students to be competent in administering, scoring, an interpreting cognitive assessment instruments. This manuscript describes a mixed methods study of graduate students learning both the traditional and digital format (Q-interactive) of the WISC-V, with the goal of improving training methods and reducing administration and scoring errors. Results indicated that more errors are made on the traditional format than on the digital format, but the errors that did occur on the digital format were on subtests that require clinical acumen. Q-interactive did not reduce errors related to more complex judgments and nuanced scoring. The participating graduate students were surveyed regarding their perceptions of each format, and they revealed a majority preference for the digital format. Training implications are discussed, and specific suggestions provided for how training programs may respond to our current situation by integrating Q-interactive into their assessment courses.

Increasing School-Based Mental Health Services with a "Grow Your Own" School Psychology Program.

There is a nationwide shortage of school psychologists, and while NASP has recommended ways to increase recruitment and retention, the research on recruiting and retaining school psychologists, especially in high-need areas, is limited. Teacher education researchers have begun to address teacher shortages through “grow your own” training programs, but the research on these programs is also limited. A team of university school psychology faculty and regional education agency administrators developed a “Grow Your Own” school psychologist re-specialization training program to support recruiting and retaining school psychologists in rural areas. It is difficult for rural education agencies to recruit young professionals to their area, but it may be possible to recruit professionals currently living in the area to school graduate training programs. The partnership between the university school psychology training program and the regional education agencies addresses the school psychology shortage in one Midwestern state by recruiting special education and related educational professionals to school psychology. A focus of this program is to place more mental health professionals (i.e., school psychologists) in rural schools, therefore addressing the deficiency of mental health services in these rural areas. The partnership and the program are described, as are opportunities and challenges that the team has experienced to date.

Study Abroad and School Psychologists’ Perceptions of Intercultural Competence

This study investigated perceived influence of study abroad experiences on intercultural competence in school psychologists and school psychologists-in-training. This exploratory descriptive qualitative analysis involved semi-structured interviews with a purposively sampled group (n = 20) of school psychologists (n = 10) and school psychology graduate students (n = 10) who studied abroad during their undergraduate or graduate programs. Participants responded to questions about their study abroad experience, how it affected them, what they learned about other cultures, and how it affected their career or career preparation. Four themes were identified: (1) awareness of cultural similarities and differences; (2) recognition of privilege; (3) development of empathy; and (4) shaping of professional practice. Participants reported that their study abroad experiences had a positive impact on their perceived intercultural competence. Implications for school psychology training programs and suggestions for future research are discussed.

A Case Study Exploration into the Benefits of Teaching Self-Care to School Psychology Graduate Students

It has long been established that school psychology practitioners experience high levels of burnout. As a means of preventing burnout among future practitioners, school psychology training programs are frequently encouraged to teach and model self-care to students. This is particularly important as the current generation of graduate students experience high levels of anxiety and depression, but there have been very few examples in the research literature of how training programs should teach self-care and whether it is actually effective. The current study presents results from an exploratory case study, which integrated self-care instruction into graduate school psychology curriculum with a small sample (N = 22) of first-year school psychology students across two separate cohorts. Students created written plans with self-care strategies that they attempted to implement over the course of their first semester in graduate school. A qualitative review of their plans and written reflections revealed that students described many sources of stress upon entry into training, and most needed to revise their strategies for coping as stresses changed during the semester. Overall, student reflections revealed that the self-care activities were helpful to meet the demands of their graduate education.

An Initial Investigation of School Principal Perspectives on School Psychologists as Systems-Level Consultants

Understanding the existing discrepancy between school psychologist engagement in systems-level consultation and the ascribed importance of such practice is likely multifaceted. Barriers, such as time spent in assessment, limited training in consultation, and high caseloads, are known to reduce the possibilities and opportunities for school psychologist participation in systems-level consultation as discussed by Barrett et al. 2017 and Curtis et al. (2012). An underexplored potential barrier to increased school psychologist involvement in more consultative activities, especially at the systems-level, may be resistance from school administrators, such as principals, to offer and engage school psychologists in consultative opportunities. The present study sought to explore principal perceptions of school psychologist preparedness for and engagement in systems-level consultation. Results of this study suggest principals may not perceive school psychologists as having the necessary knowledge and skills to provide systems-level consultation. Additionally, a principal’s knowledge about systems-level consultation and school psychologist accessibility were found to significantly influence how often principals provided school psychologists with systems-level consultation opportunities. Results of this study may aid school psychology training programs in preparing future systems-level consultants and help current school psychologists interested in expanding their roles by entering into systems-level activities.

Student interns and their field supervisors’ perceptions of a school psychology training program to support emergent bilinguals

ABSTRACT School psychologists are increasingly placed in advocacy roles to support a growing diverse population of emergent bilinguals (EBs). The pre-training practices of school psychology programs that prepare graduate students to specifically engage with EBs and their families are largely unknown. The purpose of the current study was to better understand the perceptions of graduate school psychology student interns and their respective group of field supervisors around a school psychology program that incorporated experiences and content knowledge to prepare students to respond to the multi-dimensional needs (academic, socio-emotional, assessment) of EB PK-12 students. Findings indicated that students benefited from the school psychology training but the internship experience included challenges that suggested gaps in students’ preparation. These findings are reminiscent of 35 years of investigations and outcomes about school psychology trainings to support culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students. Implications for practice include requiring more comprehensive and diverse program experiences that are contextualized within a social justice and critical race framework.

Cross-university dialogues to support multicultural school consultation training

There is a growing need for school psychologists to build multicultural knowledge, skills, values, and dispositions to serve increasingly diverse student, teacher, and caregiver populations in schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate the process and outcomes of a cross-university dialogue (CUD) activity for 88 school psychologist trainees enrolled in consultation courses, across three school psychology training programs, over three years. The CUD involved partnering with a peer or peers from another training program, individually and then collaboratively completing a case study activity, and writing a guided reflection exercise. It was intended to support trainees' development of multicultural school consultation (MSC) competency and their application of a MSC framework. Constructivist grounded theory methodology and methods, including several features to enhance trustworthiness, guided the investigation. Four themes emerged from the data: (a) trainees established increased self-awareness and professional identity, (b) trainees made sense of multiple perspectives during CUD interactions, (c) trainees learned from their partners and considered future relevance of MSC, and (d) trainees' learning reflected cross-cutting ecological perspectives, influencing the CUD interaction and learning process at multiple levels. A grounded theory based on the data is described, and implications are drawn for the training and development of MSC competence.

Voices from the Field: Addressing Job Burnout in School Psychology Training Programs.

Job burnout among school psychologists represents a potentially serious issue given widespread shortages of practitioners. It is then important to identify effective strategies for both preventing and responding to feelings of burnout when they occur to ultimately ensure a healthy workforce. The current study examined written responses provided by 122 practicing school psychologists in the Southeastern United States to the question, “What do you think training programs can do about the issue of burnout in school psychology.” A qualitative thematic analysis of responses resulted in the identification of three main themes: develop specific personal/professional skills, modify professional/training components, and modify administrative/organizational policies and seven associated sub-themes. Resulting themes are discussed in reference to specific recommendations training programs can take in the future to better address job burnout in the field.

A qualitative analysis of school psychology trainers’ perspectives on evidence-based practices

ABSTRACT This study examined school psychology faculty beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions regarding the status of graduate training in evidence-based assessment and intervention. The perspectives of a national sample of faculty in the U.S. were obtained through an online survey. A qualitative examination of faculty responses provided an understanding of the current state of instruction and dissemination of evidence-based assessment (EBA) and evidence-based intervention (EBI) in school psychology training programs. Four themes emerged from a content analysis of evidence reflecting faculty perspectives about EBAs and EBIs including barriers, facilitators, courses in EBI/EBAs, and supports for EBI/EBA implementation. Faculty provided 991 barrier-oriented comments compared to 276 support-oriented comments. The findings of this study provide insight into faculty notions about the status of evidence-based intervention and assessment in the training of school psychologists, as well as ways to overcome barriers and support a shift toward implementation science in the field.

Behavioral Supervision of Behavioral Consultation: A Case Study and Future Directions

ABSTRACTThis case study examines behavioral supervision of behavioral consultation (BSBC) during a school-based practicum experience in one school psychology training program. Supervision implemented by three advanced doctoral trainees included performance feedback to increase supervisees’ understanding and implementation of behavioral consultation. Supervisors assessed supervisees’ adherence to consultation procedures, active listening, and encouragement through video review. Data indicated supervisees’ adherence to behavioral consultation improved over the course of the academic year, as did encouragement, although changes to active listening were variable. Results are considered in the context of a BSBC framework, including implementation challenges and implications for behavioral consultation training and practice.

The impact of video exposure on students entering school psychology

AbstractSchool psychology is experiencing a shortages crisis. Within this two‐part study, the Social Cognitive Career Theory was used to examine the impact of video interventions on students' choice and application to school psychology programs. A sub‐sample of participants were followed across 4 years. Findings suggest that, when measured immediately before and after, a short video intervention had a significant impact on participants' perceived knowledge and intentions to apply to a school psychology training program. However, when measured across several years, the video was not found to have a significant impact on actual application to a school psychology training program. Nevertheless, exposure to school psychology from multiple sources was still found to be the best predictor of actually applying to a school psychology program. Study results highlight the importance of concerted efforts throughout the career development pipeline to expose students to the profession of school psychology.

Treating Pediatric Chronic Pain in Schools: A Primer for School Psychologists

Limited attention has been devoted in school psychology training programs to students with chronic health conditions. School psychologists are situated to provide behavioral and mental health services to students with chronic health conditions. The focus of this report is on pediatric chronic pain. Pediatric chronic pain is prevalent and can be debilitating, putting students at significant risk for adverse personal, social, and academic outcomes. This primer is designed to educate school psychologists about pediatric chronic pain, within the context of the biopsychosocial model of chronic pain, and to highlight the necessary components of a comprehensive model of intervention for students with pediatric chronic pain. Examples of interventions that can be provided within a school setting are presented in the framework of a multitiered system of support.

Integrating School Psychology and Applied Behavior Analysis: a Proposed Training Model

It is critical that schools reduce maladaptive behaviors and increase prosocial behavior through the provision of high-quality evidence-based practices (EBP). School psychologists are uniquely positioned to facilitate the delivery of evidence-based applied behavior analytic EBPs, with regard to the foundational training they typically receive in the areas of assessment, intervention, and consultation. However, the lack of comprehensive behavioral training in school psychology graduate programs exposes an existing training gap. Given a substantial content overlap and the significant contributions ABA offers to school-based practice, school psychology training programs should consider providing a stronger behavior analytic component that will enable program graduates to obtain the Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) certificate and more effectively address behavioral needs in schools. This paper describes the rationale for integrating a BCBA track into school psychology programs and discusses practical considerations that may arise.

Examination of Multicultural Coursework Across School Psychology Training Programs

The purpose of this study was to investigate the multicultural course requirements and courses for school psychology training programs. Data were collected for 332 programs across 240 college and university campuses within 47 states and the District of Columbia through publicly available program websites. Overall, 76% of programs offered at least one multicultural course and that 22% of programs offered a school psychology based course. Other course areas included counseling (19%), general psychology (25%), and education (10%). Specialist and master’s programs (29% and 31%, respectively) were most likely to have no courses offered or required, and doctoral programs were more likely to require at least one course (84%). On average 2.59 semester credit hours were offered (SD = 1.86; median = 3), where doctoral programs required more semester credit hours than specialist programs (Cohen’s d = 0.49). However, neither National Association of School Psychologists approval nor American Psychological Association accreditation was associated with significant differences in credit hours required. Implications for training are discussed.