Scholarly Style Research Articles

Reading Differently, Writing the City

IN 1990, MARIANNA TORGOVNICK wrote an essay on Experimental Critical Writing that impressed my youngish mind with her eloquently expressed desire to write in a new voice outside of the safe armour of academic prose, as a person with feelings, histories, and desires--as well as information and knowledge (10). Torgovnick wanted to do than simply write for a fairly narrow circle of critics: she wanted to be read by a larger audience. To court her readers, she would risk a writing that would chances than the standard scholarly style allows;' a more direct and writing (10). Such a combination of the personal and the critical always existed in the lyric poetics of certain writers that I clung to both inside and outside the classroom as an undergraduate and graduate student--those essays by William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, Robert Creeley, Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, Denise Levertov, Hugh Kenner, and Guy Davenport that I fancied as a greenhorn poet-disciple of the American projectivist writers. But here was Marianna Torgovnick, a freshly tenured professor leading by example, resisting the deadening effects of prof-speak and the constraints of institutional discourse. And Torgovnick's most recent book, one of her five to date, is The War Complex: World War II in Our Time, and it combines intimate eyewitness accounts of the aftermath of the attack on the New York World Trade Center towers, personal photographs, historical analysis, explorations of films and novels, and visits to European cities to research the profoundly persistent influence of World War II on contemporary life. I begin with Torgovnick's exemplary essay and book because these demonstrate the readerly and writerly dexterity that can be achieved by an English Department scholar who has resisted conventional disciplinary constraints on how we read and write. There are many ways to wiggle out of the disciplinary straitjackets that we weave for ourselves, and I understand that the consistent complaint of many of the respondents on the previous 2007 ACCUTE panel on Why Should I Write Like That? (especially Heather Murray, Kit Dobson, Len Findlay, and Julia Creet) was the problem of disciplinary constraints on writing. Most of us read and write well beyond the conventions of the old-fashioned literary-critical essay (however indefinable this Chimera might be), and most of us will concede that practices are as various as writing practices. I want to take this occasion, nevertheless, to engage in some shameless self-promotion of how I compel my students to read both closely and outside the boundaries of conventional literary texts and criticism, and to write outside the norms of conventional scholarship. Like Torgovnick, I want to foster forms of writing that are not merely vehicles for information but songs of experiential grappling with the personal and the everyday. I attempt to do this in various English courses but perhaps most pointedly and recently with fifty-six students in a senior undergraduate course at use titled and Writing 'Vancouver. This is a course (I flatter myself to think) that required a proprioceptive and extratextual engagement with urban cultural life than simply the same old literature and doing the same old close analysis. What does reading Vancouver entail in this course? It means than just deciphering the structural play of text and image in Doug Coupland's City of Glass, than analyzing the elegant prose style of Madeleine Thien's Simple Recipes, or excavating the regional history and culinary protocols of Timothy Taylor's Stanley Park. Reading here includes looking at the commercial signage on Granville Street and scrutinizing the clothing styles of the urban flaneurs. Reading includes smelling the produce and baked goods on Keefer Street, listening to the prattle of gossip on a bus meandering down Hastings, scuffing the salt-scurfed planking with your heels on a Steveston waterfront pier. …

Taste and resistance: Lu Xun’s scholarly style and its reception

Lu Xun’s achievements as a philosopher and writer were confirmed in the twentieth century in China, but little attention has been paid to Lu Xun as a scholar. Admittedly, the revolutionary nature of his A Brief History of Chinese Fiction (Zhongguo xiaoshuo shilüe) has been universally acknowledged in scholarly circles and the book has been quoted in many works. However, Lu Xun’s scholarly ideals, his methods, and the distinctive scholarly style that he employed have not received enough attention. Lu Xun’s choice of a particular scholarly style, as a philosopher, a writer, and a scholar, is closely interrelated with the development of the scholarship in China. This article is therefore limited to Lu Xun and attempts to expose one side of Chinese scholarship that has been overlooked while analyzing the origins and development of Lu Xun’s scholarly style (述学文体 shuxue wenti).

The rise and fall of Porsoniasm

In 1903, in the preface to the first volume of his edition of Manilius, Housman wrote:… we now witness in Germany pretty much what happened in England after 1825, when our own great age of scholarship, begun in 1691 by Bentley's Epistola ad Millium, was ended by the successive strokes of doom which consigned Dobree and Elmsley to the grave and Blomfield to the bishopric of Chester. England disappeared from the fellowship of nations for the next forty years.(Housman (1903) xlii)The name which lurks unspoken behind this paragraph is that of Richard Porson, and Dobree, Elmsley and Blomfield, whose namesarespoken, were all in different ways his disciples. Although Porson had no pupils and gave no lectures, in the generation just after his death he had a number of followers who cultivated his memory and emulated his style, at least before they were removed to higher spheres by death or preferment to bishoprics. If the cultivation of his scholarly style can be called Porsonianism, it was the cult of Porson himself after his death in 1808, centred on Trinity College, Cambridge, for which three years later the Oxford scholar Peter Elmsley coined the name ‘Porsoniasm’. As one might expect, the name-giver was an outsider. Yet as his inclusion in Housman's sketch indicates, Elmsley could be called a Porsonian, and indeed in 1911, in his inaugural lecture as Professor of Latin at Cambridge, Housman remarked that ‘scholarship meant to Elmsley what it meant to Dobree’ (Housman (1969) 25). But though Elmsley was a Porsonian, he was not (if I may venture ahapaxof my own) a Porsoniast.

Critical Literacy and the Un/Doing of Academic Discourse

This article describes a “critical literacy” approach to teaching an introductory course in academic writing to a group of students socially marginalized by poverty and prejudice. In this approach, the author asks students to identify research areas of personal interest to themselves by drawing on their own lives to generate meaningful topics, to engage in critical dialogue about their work, and to write in a scholarly style without becoming alienated from their work. She also welcomes students’ critical observations on their own experience of dominant culture and invites them to scrutinize the academic world they are entering as an institution that participates fully in systems of privilege and power. In her experience, much of the work done by students engaged in a such an approach demonstrates a higher degree of the critical insight and serious-minded knowledge-building valued in academia than is normally seen in introductory writing courses. She articulates a rationale for using this empowerment-based method of teaching academic writing in the face of calls for a return to traditional methods, and provide an analysis centred in Critical Literacy theory to account for its successes and challenges.

Classics in anatomy: Keith Porter's Harvey Lecture, “The Submicroscopic Morphology of Protoplasm”

A sense of the excitement of exploration surrounds the beginning of any new endeavor. Anyone in science knows this from the experience of venturing into a new area of research, whether as a graduate student just starting out in the laboratory with a newly claimed project, or even as an established investigator whose work has just taken a different turn to lead in a new direction. This was especially true for those working with the latest technology in visualizing fine details of anatomical structure: the electron microscope. At its inception in the 1940s and early 1950s, anything seen with this innovative tool was new, and any descriptive study of cells and cell components at the ultrastructural level (or “submicroscopic,” as it was often known at the time) was welcomed as a valued addition to the body of biological knowledge. In the Classics in Anatomy article in this issue, Dr. Peter Satir introduces for us the reprinting of a lecture by one of the true pioneering giants of our anatomical field. Dr. Keith R. Porter was a leader in the use of the new electron microscope to probe deeper into the structures only hinted at by even the best light microscopes. In his 1956 Harvey Lecture, Dr. Porter focused primarily on acquainting his audience with two cellular structures that were, at the time, highly intriguing. One, the endoplasmic reticulum, held a special interest as his own area of specialty; he had published the first descriptions of the ultrastructural details of this complex structure whose very name was based originally on a misinterpretation of what was seen at the light microscopic level. He also presented a detailed account of the architecture and functionally significant variants of cilia. These cell specializations were noted in several examples of cell types, each with different details of structure related to the specific function needed for that particular cell, yet maintaining the requisite pattern of ultramicroscopic structure that defines the family of cilia. It is interesting to an anatomist of today to note that Dr. Porter pointed out at the beginning of his lecture that there was then a great deal of effort being spent on determining the chemical composition of biological materials, but that “relatively less attention and interest is being focused on the spatial arrangement of these materials in biological systems. This fact … must be regarded as unfortunate because we cannot hope to comprehend the activities of the living cell by analysis merely of its chemical composition of the properties of its component molecules” (Porter, 1957). He pointed out that the development of the electron microscope was timely in that regard, as it seemed to have the potential to bring the discoveries in physical and biological chemistry into focus in relation to the component structures. He predicted that this aspect of the new technology would “attract a large number of devoted users who will seek to relate the form and function of cells at the macromolecular level.” This is a worthy observation for our own time, as current research in a variety of aspects of cell and tissue development, differentiation, and functional controls seems to be drawing researchers back to the questions of how these functions relate to macromolecular and cellular structures. It is most appropriate at this time for us to present here a new opportunity to “hear” a lecture from one of the truly great figures in structural sciences, to revisit a bit about the beginnings of our understanding of cell structure and thus function. It is also appropriate at this time to call attention to our Classics in Anatomy feature and invite our colleagues once again to suggest key articles or essays in their various areas of special interest that could also be considered important to the anatomical sciences in a more general sense. The intent of this feature is to present articles, essays, and published lectures by acknowledged leaders in the biological sciences, which have appeared in the past in this and other publications. In some cases, these “classic” papers may not date from the time of a turning point in new technologies, but perhaps when they appeared the authors might have been playing key roles in enhancing our understanding in a subset of structural biology. In reintroducing these key articles, we perhaps also have an opportunity to present something about the personalities responsible for the represented works. We can once again (or, for some of our younger colleagues, perhaps for the first time) appreciate both the workers and their work, for its composition as well as its subject matter, for its scholarly style and tone; that is in part what makes them classics.

Elements of developmental biology

Developmental biology has differentiated into a rich, complex field that continues to progress at breathtaking speed. This presents a conundrum for textbook authors: present students with a comprehensive survey of the entire field or distill it down to the essence that provides students with a

FDR, the Vatican, and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933-1945 (review)

FDR, the Vatican, and the Roman Church in America, 1933-1945. Edited by David B. Woollier and Richard G. Kurial. [The World of the Roosevelts.] (New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2003. Pp. xvii, 295. $59.95.) The sixteen papers selected for volume were among those originally presented at a memorable international conference held at the D. Presidential Library in Hyde Park and Marist College, Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1998. The majority of the papers chosen by the editors are scholarly contributions by recognized experts, a few are by younger scholars and graduate students, and a couple of them might best be described as essays. Together, they represent a real contribution to a fascinating period, from the beginning of the New Deal to the closing days of World War II, in which religion and politics were entwined in new and complex relationships as American Catholics were increasingly and publicly recognized as wielders of potential and real political power. A presidential administration and a nation that were moving from a primarily isolationist stance to one of international involvement and leadership also began to reckon with the Holy See, whose international presence appeared to many non-Catholics to be increasingly significant. Father Gerald Fogarty, S.J., of the University of Virginia, provides one of the most comprehensive studies encountered in book. Entitled Roosevelt and the American it draws upon his earlier work, The Vatican and the American Hierarchy, adding interesting detail from the diary of Cardinal Spellman and from the Archivio Segreto Vaticano. His paper includes a survey of the relationship between the American hierarchy and the Holy See, beginning with the Wilson administration. One of the more intriguing conclusions supported by Fogarty's well documented research is that the close alliance between and American Catholics was lost by the end of the war, due to military exigencies influenced by British (such as the willingness to bomb Rome). In some contrast to the scholarly style of Fogarty's contribution is the insightful essay by Michael Barone, a Senior Writer for U. S. News and World Report. Though filled with interesting observations, many helpful facts, and well written, his Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Protestant Patrician in a Party does not, unfortunately, provide notes to assist further research. While lauding FDR's ability to create a sustainable political coalition among Protestants, Jews, and Catholics, he focuses on the tensions between this patrician Protestant and his heavily party. The second section of the book, subtitled, Catholic Friends/Catholic Foes: The New Deal and American Catholicism provides an eclectic survey of loosely related issues in six papers. Anthony Burke Smith's John A. Ryan, the New Deal, and Understandings of a Culture of Abundance, notes the ambivalence inherent in Ryan's use of social teaching to champion the New Deal. For while that tradition provided an ample base of support for the president's reform policies, it also provided a significant critique of the consumer culture it spawned. Al and Frank: The Great Smith-Roosevelt Feud, written by Robert Slayton, posits that Smith's rejection of those policies was primarily the result of personal animus. It was directed against FDR, who served in instance as the ultimate symbol of the fraud that was the American spirit. Slayton argues that Smith's rage against FDR was engendered by the bigotry and rejection of the American people that he experienced in 1928. While it is perhaps legitimate to explore path of psychological analysis, it is also fair to ask if Smith's criticism of the New Deal could have been, in fact, more substantive than personal. Steven M. Avella focuses on California Catholics and the Gubernatorial Election of 1934, arguing that Sinclair Lewis' bid for state leadership was undermined by his militant anti-Catholicism and attacks on religion in general, as found in his earlier writings. …

Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry, 4th ed.

Article AbstractFrom our regular book review column. Several short textbooks are available in psychiatry, but generally I have found them to be short on scholarly discourse and to skimp on the scientific bases of this discipline. The Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry is an outstanding success at giving a comprehensive review of the most up-to-date knowledge in multiple fields, combining a scholarly style, erudition, and readability. Using the term Shorter in the title, rather than Short, is undoubtedly a marketing choice—the book is over 1000 pages long, with 90 pages of references and a comprehensive index. However, it is paperbound, is very portable, and easily fits in one hand for many adults.

Publikasiegereed? Oor die aanbiedingswyse, keuringsprosedure en teksversorging van navorsingsartikels

Ready to publish? On the presentation, refereeing process and text editing of scholarly articles This article is an attempt to present authors planning to write a scholarly article with practical guidelines before submitting the article to a specific journal. The following aspects are also focused on: typical points of criticism usually raised in referees’ reports, and the necessity for clarity of expression and lucid scholarly style. Specific examples of how to enhance the technical and language finish of an article are also included. This article is the outcome of many years of practical work within the Bureau for Scholarly Journals; hence the publication of it in In die Skriflig, one of the journals processed by the Bureau.

Publikasiegereed? Oor die aanbiedingswyse, keuringsprosedure en teksversorging van navorsingsartikels

Ready to publish? On the presentation, refereeing process and text editing of scholarly articles This article is an attempt to present authors planning to write a scholarly article with practical guidelines before submitting the article to a specific journal. The following aspects are also focused on: typical points of criticism usually raised in referees’ reports, and the necessity for clarity of expression and lucid scholarly style. Specific examples of how to enhance the technical and language finish of an article are also included. This article is the outcome of many years of practical work within the Bureau for Scholarly Journals; hence the publication of it in Koers, one of the journals processed by the Bureau.

Publikasiegereed? Oor die aanbiedingswyse, keuringsprosedure en teksversorging van navorsingsartikels

Ready to publish? On the presentation, refereeing process and text editing of scholarly articles This article is an attempt to present authors planning to write a scholarly article with practical guidelines for submitting the article to a specific journal. The following aspects are also discussed: typical points of criticism usually raised in referees’ reports, and the necessity for clarity of expression and lucid scholarly style. Specific examples of how to enhance the technical and language finish of an article are included. This article is the outcome of many years of practical work within the Bureau for Scholarly Journals; hence the publication of it in Literator, one of the journals processed by the Bureau.

A Call for the Teaching of Writing in Graduate Education

small but growing research literature on writing at the graduate level, most of it dealing with the appropriation of disciplinary discourse conventions by graduate students during their course of study (e.g., Berkenkotter, Huckin, & Ackerman, 1988; Blakeslee, 1997; Prior, 1995). But there is little professional discussion of what we can do to help our students write more effectively.1 And though some graduate faculty spend a good deal of time working with their students on their writing, there are few proposals to address writing specifically in the graduate curriculum. (One reason for the reluctance might be concerns that such an effort smacks of remediation, an issue we will address shortly.) The irony here is that the quality of scholarly writing is widely bemoaned, both outside and inside the academy (e.g., Limerick, 1993; Rankin, 1998), yet we seem to do little to address the quality of writing in a systematic way at the very point where scholarly style and identity is being shaped. So, in 1996, Mike Rose instituted a course in professional writing housed in the Social Research Methodology Division of our Graduate School of Education & Information Studies.2 In this article we would like both to describe what gets done in the course—and could be transferable to other institutions—and to reflect on what an explicit focus on writing instruction might provide to a graduate program in education.3 Several faculty have taught the course since its creation, and each does it a bit differently, but the essential structure is that of a writing workshop. The primary texts for the course are student writing, and, while there may be one or two initial common assignments, most of the course is spent focusing on the writing students are doing for a range of courses and a range of purposes. The students come from any of the five divisions in our school (Social Sciences & Introduction

The Scientific Revolution is Undead

The Scientific Revolution Is Undead * Mario Biagioli (bio) The changing fortunes of the Scientific Revolution and its historiographic narratives have usually been connected to macroscopic dynamics external to the discipline of history of science. For instance, the warm reception in the fifties and sixties of Koyré-style intellectual history that privileged metaphysics over social context has been linked to Cold War era concerns with maintaining a safe separation between science and its socioeconomic dimensions. On the other hand, the emphasis on the role of artisanal practices (and of the economic interests behind them) originated from a historiography of the Scientific Revolution informed by left-wing politics or even straightforward Marxist commitments. Similarly, skepticism about grand, logophallocentric, or simply progressivist narratives about early modern science may be seen as an expression of more recent sociocultural climates. Arguably, postcolonial, multicultural, and gender-aware sensibilities may have informed the reevaluation of the role of women in early modern science, the critique of the Scientific Revolution as a myth of origin of Western modernity, and the shift in focus from theory to practice or from universal to local notions of knowledge. I do not wish to criticize these macroscopic contextualizations of the Scientific Revolution as a historiographic category, but rather to complement them with a more internal and microscopic analysis of [End Page 141] our professional and institutional practices as historians of early modern science. Having witnessed an analytical shift from the theory to the practice of science, it may be time to apply the same perspective to the history of science itself. Accordingly, we may treat realist or nominalist stances about the Scientific Revolution not only as methodological and theoretical issues, but also as expressions of our mundane practices as an academic tribe. I propose to look not only at what we think about the “Scientific Revolution” but also at how we use it in constituting our disciplinary identity as historians of science in the context of increasingly professionalized academic environments, protocols of scholarly credit, and teaching responsibilities. Tenure and the Mundane Demise of Grand Narratives The style and broad scope of books like Alexandre Koyré’s From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe are rarely encountered in today’s scholarly works. One could argue that this is because of all the bad things we and our students have heard or thought about the role of grand narratives and about historiographies of science driven by metaphysical commitments. But, more simply, one could also say that, despite its brilliance, From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe is a book that would not be likely to win tenure for its author in a modern university department. By today’s standards, its footnote apparatus is on the light side, its scope too broad, and its generalizations a bit too adventurous. To continue this thought experiment, a picky modern reviewer would be likely to see Koyré’s “A Documentary History of the Problem of Fall” as a proper scholarly text, but might raise some doubts about, say, “Galileo and Plato.” Still revered as quasi-sacred, Koyré’s works are no longer presented as exemplars for young professional historians to imitate. The bureaucratic, academic standards that have evolved alongside the professionalization of our discipline have made Koyré look outdated, not so much because of the specific content of his interpretations, but because of his grand historiographic style—a style we now associate with textbooks and more popular works. What has changed is our “form of life,” not just our interpretive dispositions. Similarly, given that most professional historians of science do not dwell obsessively on issues of narratology or methodology, the emergence of more-circumscribed studies as the modus operandi of our discipline may not be the necessary result of the theoretical reframing of knowledge as local, contingent, contested, and so forth. Local studies of early modern science are now the predominant genre of our field, and they are not produced just by those [End Page 142] who fell in love with Clifford Geertz or SSK in graduate school. More mundanely, history of science has developed its academic niche (often within empirically minded departments like history), and its scholarly style reflects the usual trend of professionalization and...

Cyril Stanley Smith (1903–1992)

Memorial CYRIL STANLEY SMITH (1903-1992) THOMAS P. HUGHES Cyril Stanley Smith lent his scholarly style and his prestige to the Society for the History of Technology when they were sorely needed. His enthusiastic support of the society and his deep interest in the history of technology helped Melvin Kranzberg as he labored imagi­ natively to attract new members into the society and to persuade others to perform the various chores of society affairs. When Cyril accepted the presidency of the society in 1963, he took an active role in shaping policies that helped determine its intellectual and organi­ zational character then and even today. Respectful of the professional historian, he nevertheless believed that engineers and scientists had special and important roles to play by writing the history of science and engineering. They could, he believed, provide authenticity and rigor in their essays and books by stressing intellectual clarity, the deep satisfaction to be gained in manipulating materials and energy, and the aesthetic fulfillment of finding beauty and pattern in the natural and the human made. In 1966 the members of the society recognized his contributions and his intellectual vision by naming him recipient of the Leonardo da Vinci Medal. From then until he died on August 25, 1992, at his home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cyril continued to take an active interest and part in the intellectual development of the field and the society. Cyril came to SHOT with a background different from the profes­ sional historians who founded the society. From 1927 to 1942 he worked as a research metallurgist at the American Brass Company, taking out some twenty patents and contributing numerous papers to technical organizations. At Los Alamos during World War II he led the team preparing the fissionable materials for the atomic bombs. For this he was awarded the Presidential Medal for Merit. In 1946 he Dr. Hughes is Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Department of History and Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania. Permission to reprint a memorial in this section may be obtained only from the author. 716 Cyril Stanley Smith (1903 —1992) became the first director of the University of Chicago Institute for the Study of Metals. He left in 1961 to become Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with a joint appoint­ ment in the Departments of Metallurgy and of Humanities until he retired as emeritus in 1969. His approach to the history of technology differed from that taken by those of us trained as professional historians. When I was a professor in the Humanities Department at MIT from 1961 until 1965, Agatha Hughes and I were often guests of Alice Kimball Smith and Cyril in their Cambridge home. Through these occasions we became intimately acquainted with the Smiths’ academic style and interests. Alice had the Ph.D. from Yale University in history and was author of a distinguished work, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America, 1945—47, in which she described the efforts of leading scientists to inform politicians and the public about nuclear science and politics. Cyril learned much about the historian’s craft from Alice, but his approach to history was essentially that of a highly imaginative materials scientist. While Alice accepted the messy com­ plexity of history, Cyril always looked for the aesthetically satisfying patterns that would bring clarifying order to his world of experience. He found these through his analyses of atomic and microscopically visible structures in solids; he could not rest until he found analogous patterns in the history of technology. In 1979 he wrote: “Almost all fields today are concerned in one way or another with hierarchical structure, and a theory, or perhaps more usefully a metaphor, common to all may emerge if the features of many are compared . . . patterns of communication are common to all, with aggregation leading to diversity or unity, and the clumps of unity themselves serving in turn as units in larger structures based upon more complex but still direct communication” (A Searchfor Structure: Selected Essays on Science, Art, and History [Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981], pp. vii— viii). Cyril never ceased to be amazed that nature revealed itself to him...

The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science.

Introduction 1. Institutional Landscapes Monasteries and Universities Renaissance Courts Scientific Academies Women at the Periphery Parisian Salons Women's Academies 2. Noble Networks The Curious Matter of Math Noblewomen in Scientific Networks Margaret Cavendish, Natural Philosopher Cavendish, a Feminist? Emilie du Chatelet and Physics 3. Scientific Women in the Craft Tradition Maria Sibylla Merian and the Business of Bugs Women Astronomers in Germany Maria Winkelmann at the Berlin Academy of Sciences The Attempt to Become Academy Astronomer The Clash between Guild Traditions and Professional Science A Brief Return to the Academy Invisible Assistants 4. Women's Traditions Midwifery Cookbooks for the Health and Pleasure of Mankind Legitimizing Exclusion 5. Battles over Scholarly Style When Science Was a Woman Reading Allegories The Masculine Allegory Did the Feminine Icon Represent Real Women? The Decline of Feminine Icons Competing Scholarly Styles The Attack on the Salon: A Masculine Style? 6. Competing Cosmologies: Locating Sex and

The author cocitation structure of macroeconomics

Cocitations of the work of 42 prominent macroeconomists (past and present) were examined, using multidimensional scaling and clustering techniques. Author clusters, corresponding primarily to current schools of thought in macroeconomics, are arranged along two dimensions of scholarly style; 1) a relative orientation toward quantitative or mathematical models and issues and 2) a continuum of active concern with older scholarship in the field. Social relationships demonstrated by these techniques include joint journal editorship, mentor-student links and institutional affiliation. New to this study is evidence of the cocitation of prominent authors as ‘concept symbols’.

Commercialism and Frontier: Perspectives on the Early Shenandoah Valley

Commercialism and Frontier deals with the historical development of a rural locale during its early settlement-the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia in the eighteenth century. Mitchell proposes examine how the processes of commercialization influence land utilization and social evolution in newly settled areas over time and to evaluate the degree to which the emerging structures and patterns may have been modified by considerations of environmental variation, external political control, and different cultural heritages. Within the confines of this famous migration corridor, Mitchell embarks on his ambitious proposition first by re-creating the essential regional geography of the country between the Potomac and James rivers and then by examining the effects of land acquisition, speculation, and ethnicity on economic development. He gives particular attention to the transformation of the area after 1760 from an extension of the Pennsylvania frontier to a western accession of eastern Virginia. Demography, social stratification, rise of commercial agriculture and manufacturing, emergence of transportation and mercantile linkages, and urbanism are discussed. Mitchell concludes subsistence was at best a momentary expression of economic activity and that commercial tendencies were present from the beginnings of permanent settlement and were the most dynamic element in the emerging pioneer The greater part of the book is an elaboration of this central theme, an accounting of its many proofs, and an assessment of its impact on the landscape. Because the Shenandoah Valley is hallowed ground, one of those few places popularly judged critical to American history, Mitchell's efforts will be deservedly well received. The book's obvious strength lies in its detailed application of much new, sometimes thought-provoking information to the examination of this fabled district and its infant economy. At times the reader is overwhelmed by the mind-numbing avalanche of data drawn from almost every conceivable primary and secondary source. Of special value are the illustrations. More than forty maps and tables accompany the text, making visable for the first time many of the regional variations existed during the frontier period. Scholars spoiled by the richness of nineteenthand twentieth-century records will find a great deal to criticize in this book, for like most students of the colonial era, Mitchell is occasionally forced to unusually heroic feats of inference. Often his wit sustains his interpretations despite inadequate evidence, but sometimes the reader remains unconvinced. The very nature of the statistically dependent approach preferred by the author requires sound numerical analysis, yet the quantity and quality of useful data are admittedly deficient. I suspect some of the conclusions drawn from accountings of county records may be more precise than accurate. Such unavoidable lapses are made all the more apparent by the book's otherwise scholarly style. Another aspect of this work will excite both admiration and controversy is Mitchell's attempt to identify general principles governing the settlement process by testing hypotheses of economic development against the realities of frontier Virginia. His synthesis of socioeconomic theory with history and regional geography offers intriguing opportunities to study human behavior but will also elicit criticism from some who would argue the Shenandoah Valley is ill suited for this task by virtue of its role as a major western thoroughfare. Commercialism and Frontier is an ambitious book. All things considered, it is a successful one. Mitchell has produced a volume essential both to students of frontier and colonial history and to those who simply want to know more about western Virginia. A sometimes controversial work will be frequently cited in ensuing years, the book is worth reading and buying.-WILLIAM A. BOWEN conomic form, the town, and the process was similar in each of five separate plac s. hether the book will be succe sful in appealing to wide audience is more debatable.-EDIN DORAN JR.

Revised Token Test,

For all concerned with assessing the neuropsychologic aspects of aphasia and brain damage, this book nicely balances the how and theoretical interpretations. It is a high quality soft-cover first edition with the following threefold purpose: a reconstruction of the original Token Test , a standardization of the methodology, and evaluation of the processes underlying linguistic comprehension. In scholarly style, the authors develop a relevant historical overview, and present an extensive update of the behavioral literature. They explicate their position regarding some controversial problems, such as the nature of verbal instructions and manipulations of geometric forms vs real objects. They describe their scoring system, a procedure in which the examiner assigns ordinal numerals to defined categories of patient responses along the following five dimensions: accurate/inaccurate, responsive/nonresponsive, complete/incomplete, prompt/delayed, and efficient/inefficient. The testing protocol consists of ten subtests with four different command lengths and four sentence types. This revision is claimed to

The Theological Significance of Rudolf Bultmann

How DOES one briefly explain the theological significance of a man whose diversified writings extend from his first book review in 1908 to the present decade? Is it possible for a short essay to disclose a fundamental unity in topics which range from source criticism, the history of religion, literary criticism, classical philology, technical exegesis, Gnostic studies, existential philosophy, and hermeneutics to the Gifford Lectures, the theological essay, popular and literate dialogue about the Church, demythologizing, and the relation of the New Testament to daily life? If the theological significance is judged in terms of intellectual climate, moral force, and scholarly style or by the more tangible but subtle influence on several generations of scholars, then the theological significance seems almost as elusive as it is palpable. Fortunately, diversity of form and subject is more apparent than real. The theological atmosphere and problematic shaped by Bultmann may be traced to concepts and procedures available to any critical reader. While it is quite correct to note, as did Hans Jonas on the Feiertag celebrated in honor of Bultmann in Marburg, November 16,1976, that it is impossible to separate the man from his writings, for he lived as he wrote, we are not here primarily concerned with Bultmann's personal psychological integrity, striking as it is. It may, however, be accurate to say that this escalating unity of life and work is grounded in the one objective to which Bultmann committed himself: the mediation of the Christian tradition, the attempt to make a particular religious vision and its theological interpretation fruitful for the present and future.

Howell Cobb: The Politics of Ambition (review)

182CIVIL WAR HISTORY from Hong Kong to Annapolis. They kept abreast of the locations of all members of the family, and when not known, requested information from one another. The most interesting stories appear in the letters of Commander Alan D. Brown, who roamed the Seven Seas. He described a party given by an American merchantman up the Santos River, a tea offered by the King of Siam, a visit to the island of St. Helena, although he did not visit the "former prison house of the Great Conqueror," and a revolution in Panama in 1873, where he caught the "Panama fever." In addition , his years at the United States Naval Academy, where he was an instructor, are verv illuminating, especially the New Year's Eve party in 1870. As usual in a book filled with people and events, there are a few misspellings and sentence fragments. I also doubt if the Army of the Potomac , under General George B. McClellan, ever numbered 175,000 troops. On occasion there appears to be too much family trivia, but this is to be expected in a book of this type. Nothing has yet been published which better illustrates, in such an interesting and scholarly fashion, the interplay of a family so involved in the Civil War years. The author has correlated the Tyler-Brown letters into an excellent narrative. Tyler-Browns of Brattleboro is definitely not an edited work of Civil War letters, but a complete and well written account of a fascinating family. The book is well researched and organized, and is a must for all persons interested in nineteenthcentury United States history. Robert C. Harris University of West Florida Howell Cobb: The Politics of Ambition. By John Eddins Simpson. (Chicago: The Adams Press, 1973. Pp. vi, 198. Paperback, $4.95.) As his subtitle suggests, the author attempts to prove that his subject offers "a case study of the thesis that the Civil War was caused by selfish , shortsighted politicians" (p. iii). Howell Cobb entered national political life as a member of Congress and rose quickly to the influential post of Speaker of the House of Representatives during the critical struggles over the compromise measures of 1850. Cobb then returned to Georgia to serve as "Unionist" governor of his state from 1851 to 1853 before returning to Congress in 1855. Successively Secretary of the Treasury during Buchanan's administration, president of the provisional Confederate Congress, and general in the Confederate armies, Cobb ended his career as the leading expounder of the post-war Georgia Democracy's racist politics. Cobb's political career certainly offers an ample opportunity to test the author's thesis. Moreover, the author's bibliography indicates that he attempted to test the thesis by consulting a wide variety of primary sources, including the large collection of Cobb manuscripts still controlled by family heirs. BOOK REVIEWS183 The author has shown that Cobb gave little consideration to any career except that of a politician, pursuing legal studies and the legal profession only as an evil necessary to enable him to practice politics. The author also demonstrates that this love for politics caused Cobb to neglect money matters, leaving him and his family in a continually precarious financial position, certainly an ironic counterpoint to his successful administration of the nation's finances. The author also suggests (p. 47) that his wife's delicate health and emotional instability drove Cobb further into politics as an escape. But the full implications of the aged "blundering generation" thesis, as they apply to Cobb, remain, in this reviewer's opinion, unproven. The personal opinion must be emphasized because of the format of the book. Although it is written in a scholarly style and contains numerous quotations, the book appears without a footnote to aid the reader, whose task is further complicated by the absence of an index. The reviewer , denied the ability to examine specific references for specific conclusions, is forced to rely upon his own knowledge of the same primary sources which the author examined. On that basis, this reviewer finds unacceptable the author's conclusions that Cobb's Treasury department was "patronage-rich" or that the department's patronage could or did "enable...