Schmidt's Schema Theory Research Articles

Come to think of it: Contributions of reasoning abilities and training schedule to skill acquisition in a virtual throwing task

According to Schmidt's schema theory skill acquisition is based on schema formation where multiple learning incidents with varying task features are abstracted to a unifying pattern, the schema. Practice can be scheduled block-wise, with low contextual interference (CI) or randomly, with high CI. The greater effort during high CI training usually results in reduced training success but enhanced retention and transfer performance. In contrast to well-established CI effects for simple tasks, findings for complex tasks are heterogeneous, supposedly due to the detrimental accumulation of task demands. We assumed that in complex tasks, cognitive reasoning abilities might impose a limit upon schema formation and hence the effectiveness of CI. In a virtual overarm-throwing experiment participants practiced target positions at center, left, or right and were retested for retention - at the center position - and transfer with a larger target distance. Although there was no main effect of CI on performance, either in training, retention or transfer, under high CI, training performance was better for participants with higher reasoning ability, as measured with the Raven matrices. This advantage persisted across retention and transfer. Under low CI, reasoning was positively related to performance improvement only in the last third of training. We argue, that variability of practice is a necessary prerequisite for beneficial effects of reasoning abilities. Based on previous findings, we discuss feedback evaluation as a possible locus of the relationship between reasoning and performance in motor skill acquisition.

The memory representation of motor skills: a test of schema theory.

Currently, a popular model for the central representation of motor skills is embodied in Schmidt's schema theory of discrete motor skill learning (Schmidt, 1975). Two experiments are reported here that contrast predictions from a schema abstraction model that is the basis for schema theory with those from an exemplar-based model of motor skill memory representation. In both experiments, subjects performed 300 trials per day of three variations of a three-segment timing task over 4 days of acquisition. The subjects then either immediately transferred to four novel variations of the same task (Experiment 1) that varied in degree of similarity to the exemplars experienced during acquisition; or performed two novel and two previously produced exemplars, following 24-h and 1-week retention intervals (Experiment 2). The results indicated that novel task transfer was not affected by the degree of similarity between the acquisition and transfer exemplars, and that there was no advantage for a previously produced exemplar over a novel exemplar after either a 24-hr or 1 week retention interval. Also, in both experiments, a consistent pattern of bias in responding was noted for novel task transfer and retention. These results are indicative of a schema abstraction model of memory representation for motor skills.

A note on schema and exemplar approaches to motor skill representation in memory.

Given the need for a memory representation of well-learned motor skills, a common assumption in motor behavior is that this knowledge is stored in a central, abstracted form. Active production of motor skills has not been used in experimental designs that have provided empirical support for this view of representation, however. Much of the faith in centralized, abstracted forms of memory representation for motor skills is due to the popularity of Schmidt's schema theory, which has adapted the prototype abstraction model from category learning research to the representation of motor skills. Since schema theory was proposed, however, an alternative view that seriously questions the preeminence of the prototype abstraction model for the central representation of knowledge has arisen in the category learning literature. This particular view, termed the specific exemplar model, has led a number of researchers in cognition to develop mixed models that involve both prototypic abstraction and specific exemplar elements. This note, then, identifies what can be perceived as a gap in the empirical knowledge base in motor behavior and discusses the possibility of using the debate about representation for category learning as a stimulus for initiating a similar investigation into the representation of motor skills. A hypothetical specific exemplar model for the memory representation of motor skills is outlined, and possible empirical comparisons between this model and the schema abstraction model are suggested.

The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children

AbstractThe present investigation was concerned with the variability‐of‐practice hypothesis of Schmidt's schema theory of motor learning; i. e. it was sought to determine if there is an optimal way to structure the variable practice session with regard to schema formation. Furthermore, children's motor recognition (movement evaluation) was examined, in addition to recall (movement production), since apparently no such studies had been done within the context of schema theory before. Eighty‐eight girls and boys with a mean age of 11.3 years were tested on a throwing task. Three groups of subjects practised under variable conditions (different target distances and weights) that differed with regard to contextual interference and sequential organization of task variations; another group received constant throwing practice. Following practice trials with knowledge of results, the four treatment groups and a control group without prior practice were required to produce and evaluate a novel response (novel target distance and weight) without vision and knowledge of results. The results supported the variability‐of‐practice hypothesis, in that variable practice in general facilitated recall and recognition on the novel task. Furthermore, variable practice with the highest level of contextual interference (random order of tasks) produced most effective transfer performance, suggesting that the structure of the variable‐practice session in fact plays a role with regard to the effectiveness of motor schema development. Contrary to the ‘organization hypothesis’ (Gentile and Nacson, 1976) a hierarchical organization of movement variations was not more beneficial to schema formation than random practice.

Retention of a Linear Task at a Novel Distance after Practice at Varied Distances

The applicability of Schmidt's Schema Theory to a specific sport skill was investigated. 42 subjects in six intact groups practiced golf putting at different distances or combinations of distances. After 12 test putts at a novel distance, an analysis of variance of putts on test Trial 1 and the total of all test trials gave no significant differences among groups. The long-varied distance practice group (25, 30, 40, and 45 ft.) scored significantly better on test Trial 3 than the short- and long-nonvaried group (6 and 45 ft.). Analysis of test putts for varied and constant practice groups indicated a superiority of varied practice subjects in adjusting on a later test trial after initial attempts. The varied-practice groups showed a greater group consistency of score over the 12 test putts. Men performed significantly better than women, but age of subjects was not a significant factor.

Schmidt's schema theory: the empirical base of the variability of practice hypothesis: A critical analysis

This paper is addressed to Schmidt's (1975) schema theory of motor learning. Within this theory, most attention has apparently been given to the variability of practice hypothesis. The hypothesis claims that variable practice is more effective for schema development than constant practice. The empirical foundation of the variability prediction is evaluated here on the basis of 63 relevant studies (mainly journal articles and dissertations), reporting 73 different experiments and covering 12 years of empirical research (from 1975 through 1987). Experiments with adult ( n = 48) and with child subjects ( n = 25) were distinguished. In the literature, it is often stated that solid empirical support is available for the hypothesis, especially with child subjects. From the review presented here, it was concluded that, firstly, about half of the experiments were factually not addressing the variability prediction, particularly because no learning was evident during practice. Secondly, only limited support favouring the prediction could be obtained from the remaining experiments. The variability prediction cannot, therefore, rest upon consistent supportive evidence, neither with adult nor with child subjects.

A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition

The contextual interference effect is a learning phenomenon where interference during practice is beneficial to skill learning. That is, higher levels of contextual interference lead to poorer practice performance than lower levels while yielding superior retention and transfer performance. This rather counterintuitive effect, first demonstrated by Battig (1966) for verbal materials and later shown to be relevant to motor skill learning by Shea and Morgan (1979), has led to a considerable amount of research. In this article, we review the motor skills literature related to this effect by focusing on two research directions. First, evidence related to the generalizability of the effect is considered to identify possible parameters of the contextual interference effect. It is apparent that this effect is not applicable for learning all types of tasks and for all types of learners. Thus, task and individual characteristics are given particular consideration. Second, the explanations offered to establish what learning processes account for this effect are considered. Here, the different views proposed to explain the contextual interference are discussed along with research addressing this issue. Also, the relationship between the contextual interference effect and the practice variability hypothesis of Schmidt's schema theory is explored. Finally, future research directions are suggested with the goal of providing guidelines for research to enhance our present knowledge of the contextual interference effect and its relationship to motor skill learning.

RETENTION OF A LINEAR TASK AT A NOVEL DISTANCE AFTER PRACTICE AT VARIED DISTANCES

The applicability of Schmidt's Schema Theory to a specific sport skill was investigated. 42 subjects in six intact groups practiced golf putting at different distances or combinations of distances. After 12 test putts at a novel distance, an analysis of variance of putts on test Trial 1 and the total of all test trials gave no significant differences among groups. The long-varied distance practice group (25, 30, 40, and 45 ft.) scored significantly better on test Trial 3 than the short- and long-nonvaried group (6 and 45 ft.). Analysis of test putts for varied and constant practice groups indicated a superiority of varied practice subjects in adjusting on a later test trial after initial attempts. The varied-practice groups showed a greater group consistency of score over the 12 test putts. Men performed significantly better than women, but age of subjects was not a significant factor.

Effects of Variable Practice on Retention and Motor Schema Development in down Syndrome Subjects

Portions of Schmidt's schema theory, the effects of variable practice on retention and ability to learn a novel motor task, were tested using Down syndrome subjects. 23 subjects ranged in mental and chronological ages from 3.0 to 5.1 yr. and 4.6 to 22 yr., respectively. IQs ranged from 32 to 62. The two throwing tasks were closed, discrete movements requiring no feedback or error detection during movement. Subjects were randomly assigned to a specific-practice, variable-practice, or control group. Specific group subjects practiced 100 trials from the test-target location. Variable-practice subjects also practiced 100 trials but from four different practice locations. The control group practiced an unrelated kicking activity. All subjects participated in identical pretests, posttests, and retention tests to assess accuracy on these throwing tasks. A standard archery target was used to score tosses. To examine the effects of practice on a novel task, two target conditions, or tasks, were employed. On Task A the subject tossed a bean bag at the archery target placed flat on the floor. For Task B, the novel task, the target was placed upright on the wall. Subjects were assigned higher scores for tosses landing closer to the center of the target. Analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between groups on Task A pretest or posttest. Significance was detected for the main effect of group for Task B. However, the Scheffé post hoc test indicated that the simple main effects were nonsignificant. This research did not support Schmidt's schema theory.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A Prelongitudinal Test of Motor Stage Theory

Abstract A test of motor stage theory was conducted to screen cross-sectionally for the existence of “horizontal structure” among motor sequences within four movement components of overarm throwing and overarm striking for force. A total of 58 male subjects were filmed performing five trials of each task. Comparisons were made between movement component sequence levels as assessed by Roberton's Component Category Checklist for the Overarm Throw and Langendorfer's Component Category Checklist for Overarm Striking. Results indicated that longitudinal study of sequences within the components of trunk, humerus, forearm-racquet actions was warranted and that intertask comparisons of motor sequences were best represented by combinations of stage models proposed by Wohlwill (1973). The observed movement commonalities in the present data were consistent with constructs in both Piagetian developmental stage theory and Schmidt's schema theory in motor control and learning.

Distant Transfer in Coincident Timing as a Function of Variability of Practice

An assumption of Schmidt's schema theory is that variable practice will enhance the development of schema which will in turn facilitate transfer to situations requiring novel responses. This assumption has been supported in research with both open and closed tasks as defined by Poulton. In an open task-study the novel response was within the range of responses previously experienced by subjects. The present study using an open task concerned whether acquisition of novel responses outside the range of the subjects' past experience would be facilitated by variability of practice. The results confirmed schema theory. Subjects with variable practice showed greater transfer to a novel speed outside the range of training than subjects trained under constant practice. A generalization gradient was obtained. Further the novel conditions were from training conditions, the poorer the transfer appeared to be. However, generalization decrement was attenuated with variable practice.

Motor Schema: The Structure of the Variability Session

Abstract The generality of the variability in practice prediction, arising from Schmidt's schema theory (1975) of motor learning was tested on young children. More specifically, the structure of the variability session and its subsequent influence on transfer performance to a novel variation of the task was examined. Children tossed a weighted bean bag to a fixed target location. Three groups experienced variability in practice with four bean bags of varying weights (3, 4, 5, and 6 oz.); however, the trial-by-trial presentation of each weight was different for each group. One group received a random presentation of each weight from trial to trial while another experienced random presentations of a weight for blocks of three trials. The third variability group received blocked practice with six trials per block for each weight. All variability groups experienced the same amount of practice at each weight. A constant practice group experienced only a single weight. Following 24 practice trials, all subjects...

Effects of varying force production in practice schedules of children learning a discrete motor task.

The variability of practice prediction from Schmidt's Schema Theory involving transfer and retention was tested when manipulating only the performance parameter of over-all force. Children (n = 120) of two age groups performed a 15-in (39.1 cm) arm movement on a linear slide modified to allow manipulating the force required to move the car on the slide. No significant differences between the variable group and the constant practice group were found for either the 10 transfer or 5 retention trials. Mean absolute errors were ordered in favor of the constant practice group for both transfer and retention. For the first transfer trial a significant difference was found; constant practice groups performed better. This finding is contrary to predictions of schema theory as well as evidence from children as subjects.

A test of Schmidt's schema theory of discrete motor skill learning.

Abstract Schmidt's (1975) schema theory was tested with subjects who had to emit a rapid aiming response while wearing prism glasses. The glasses enabled them to view the target, but not their responding limb or the outcome of the movement. The problem was to determine the effect of (a) training with variable target practice, and (b) experiencing visual displacement information of the target, prior to training, on performance in transfer to a novel target distance. A 2 × 2 (type of practice × displacement information) factorial design was used, in which four groups of 15 male college subjects performed 60 training trials with verbal knowledge of results. The groups with variable target practice had less error on initial transfer to the novel target and throughout transfer than the groups with nonvariable target practice. No evidence was found to indicate that rate of learning for a novel target distance during transfer in the absence of KR is a positive function of the variability of target practice in tr...

Schema Theory: An Application to Integration of Fine and Gross Motor Skills of Young Children

This study tested the extension of Schmidt's schema theory to the relationship between fine and gross motor skills. It was hypothesized that significant covariation would occur between isomorphic pairs of fine and gross motor skills. 52 children ranging in age from 29 to 63 mo. were tested on a series of 20 tasks. Each fine motor task was paired with an analogous gross-motor task having identical underlying cognitive elements but requiring different muscle groups for execution. When age was partialled out, the results showed significant covariation among 6 of 10 pairs of isomorphically related skills. In contrast, no consistent positive relationship among unrelated fine or gross motor skills was demonstrated. These findings support Schmidt's motor schema theory and suggest that the schema may function to integrate selected aspects of fine and gross motor skills of young children.

Variability of Practice and Transfer of Training

Two experiments were conducted to test predictions, arising from Schmidt's (1975) schema theory of motor learning, related to the effect of variability of initial practice upon subsequent transfer to another task. Rapid linear timing movements were employed to operationally separate the recall and recognition schemata. Experiment 1 showed that training at two different movement times, when given in an appropriate order, facilitated the recall and recognition of a subsequent transfer movement-time task, but only when the criterion movement time was sufficiently outside the range of initial practice. Experiment 2 increased the number of training movement times beyond two, but no reliable transfer effect occurred, although the variable practice groups showed significantly reduction of movement error on the initial transfer trials in the absence of knowledge of results. Overall, the two experiments provided some initial support for Schmidt's schema theory of motor learning. Diane C. Shapiro is now at the Department of Physical Education, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007.