Schirmer Tear Test Research Articles

Supercritical fluid-mediated liposomes containing cyclosporin A for the treatment of dry eye syndrome in a rabbit model: comparative study with the conventional cyclosporin A emulsion.

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of cyclosporin (CsA)-encapsulated liposomes with the commercially available CsA emulsion (Restasis®) for the treatment of dry eye syndrome in rabbits.MethodsLiposomes containing CsA were prepared by the supercritical fluid (SCF) method consisted of phosphatidylcholine from soybean (SCF-S100) and egg lecithins (SCF-EPCS). An in vitro permeation study was carried out using artificial cellulose membrane in Franz diffusion cells. Dry eye syndrome was induced in male albino rabbits and further subdivided into untreated, Restasis®-treated, EPCS, and S100-treated groups. Tear formation in the dry-eye-induced rabbits was evaluated using the Schirmer tear test. All formulations were also evaluated by ocular irritation tests using the Draize eye and winking methods with the determination of CsA concentration in rabbit tears.ResultsAfter the treatment, the Schirmer tear test value significantly improved in EPCS-treated (P=0.005) and S100-treated (P=0.018) groups compared to the Restasis®-treated group. The AUC0–24 h for rabbit’s tear film after the administration of SCF-S100 was 32.75±9.21 μg·h/mg which was significantly higher than that of 24.59±8.69 μg·h/mg reported with Restasis®. Liposomal CsA formulations used in this study showed lower irritation in rabbit eyes compared with Restasis®.ConclusionThese results demonstrate that the novel SCF-mediated liposomal CsA promises a significant improvement in overcoming the challenges associated with the treatment of dry eyes.

Prospective, multicenter, clinical evaluation of point-of-care matrix metalloproteinase-9 test for confirming dry eye disease.

The aim of this study was to determine the negative and positive agreement of a point-of-care matrix metalloproteinase-9 test in confirming the diagnosis of dry eye and to evaluate the ease of use by untrained ophthalmic technicians. The study was a prospective, sequential, masked, clinical trial with 4 clinical trial sites. The InflammaDry test was compared with the clinical assessment of tear break-up time, Schirmer tear testing, and corneal staining for the confirmation of dry eye, both with and without the inclusion of the Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI), as a confirmatory test. The study enrolled 237 patients. If the OSDI is included in the definition for mild dry eye, the InflammaDry test was shown to have a total positive agreement of 81% (127/157) and a negative agreement of 98% (78/80). The removal of the OSDI shifted the categorization of 11 patients previously considered positive for dry eye to become categorized as negative for dry eye. If the OSDI is excluded from the definition of dry eye, the InflammaDry test demonstrates a positive agreement of 86% (126/146) and a negative agreement of 97% (88/91) against the clinical assessment. The InflammaDry test demonstrates a high positive and negative agreement for confirming suspected dry eye disease. In addition, the test was safely and effectively performed by untrained operators. These findings support the intended use of the InflammaDry test as an aid in the diagnosis of dry eye.

Development of tear production and intraocular pressure in healthy canine neonates.

The aim of this study was to investigate the development of aqueous tear production and intraocular pressure in healthy canine neonates between 2 and 12 weeks of age. One litter, consisting of 8 healthy Beagle dogs--four males and four females-was used. Between the age of 2 and 12 weeks, tear production and intraocular pressure were measured weekly in both eyes. Tear production was measured by Schirmer tear test, before (STT1) and after (STT2) topical anesthesia and drying of the conjunctival sac. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured using a rebound tonometer. As no significant differences existed between left and right eye measurements (STT1, STT2, and IOP) at all time points, only right eye measurements were further analyzed. STT1, STT2, and IOP values increased significantly until the age of 9 weeks for STT1, until the age of 10 weeks for STT2, and until the age of 6 weeks and again between 10 and 11 weeks of age for IOP. IOP decreased significantly between 11 and 12 weeks of age. There were no significant differences in STT1, STT2, and IOP between males and females, except for IOP at 10 and 12 weeks of age. No significant correlation was demonstrated between body weight and STT1 or STT2. STT1, STT2, and IOP values increased significantly in the first weeks after birth. The results of this study indicate that separate reference values for tear production and intraocular pressure need to be established for neonatal dogs.

Canine keratoconjunctivitis sicca: an overview

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is a relatively common condition in dogs, which is caused by a deficiency of the aqueous component of the tear film. The most common cause is immune-mediated disease but other aetiologies include neurogenic, congenital, endocrine and infectious disease, drug-induced, iatrogenic, evisceration/prosthesis and irradiation. Diagnosis is made by performing a Schirmer Tear Test. Clinical signs include ocular discomfort, conjunctival hyperaemia, a tenacious mucopurulent ocular discharge and a lacklustre appearance to the corneal surface. Topical medication forms the mainstay of treatment but in refractory cases surgical intervention should be considered. This article gives an up-to-date overview into the management of canine KCS.

Conjunctival expression of the P2Y2 receptor and the effects of 3% diquafosol ophthalmic solution in dogs

Conjunctival epithelial and goblet cell P2Y2 nucleotide receptors regulate ion transport and secretory function. Diquafosol is a P2Y2 purinergic receptor agonist that stimulates secretion of aqueous tear components from conjunctival epithelial cells and secretion of mucin from conjunctival goblet cells. In humans suffering from keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye), topical administration of diquafosol improves corneal epithelial integrity and stabilises the tear film. The aim of the present study was to investigate P2Y2 receptor expression and to determine the effect of topical administration of diquafosol on mucin and aqueous tear production in dogs.Canine conjunctival P2Y2 receptor expression was evaluated by Western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis. The effect of diquafosol on mucin secretion was evaluated by examining mucin-5 subtype AC (MUC5AC) concentration in tears. The effect of diquafosol on aqueous secretions was evaluated by performing the Schirmer tear test (STT) and phenol red thread test. Expression of the P2Y2 receptor was confirmed in canine bulbar and palpebral conjunctivae and receptors were identified at the conjunctival epithelial and goblet cell surface. Tear MUC5AC concentration significantly increased after administration of 3% diquafosol ophthalmic solution, although neither STT nor phenol red thread test values showed any significant change after diquafosol instillation. Topical ocular administration of 3% diquafosol might improve corneal epithelial disorders in dogs through stabilisation of the tear film, by virtue of an increase in MUC5AC secretion.

Evaluation of standardized endodontic paper point tear test in New Zealand white rabbits and comparison between corneal sensitivity followed tear tests.

To evaluate endodontic paper point tear test (PPTT) in rabbits and compare changes in corneal touch threshold (CTT) induced by Schirmer tear test (STT) and PPTT. Normal corneal sensitivity recovery time after both tear tests was also measured. Also, mean PPTT and STT values were obtained. Tear production of 20 eyes, from 10 rabbits, was evaluated using STT and the PPTT. Central corneal touch threshold was measured by a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer before any tear test was performed (zero time), immediately after the test (1min), and consecutively at 6, 11, 16, and 26min. Tests were conducted on three consecutive days: Day 1 - control condition, no tear tests performed only the CTT; Day 2 - CTT before and after PPTT; and Day 3 - CTT before and after STT. CTT values were compared using repeated measures ANOVA. Corneal touch threshold was significantly increased for at least 16min after STT, indicating STT causes corneal discomfort. No difference was found between CTT following PPTT and controls, indicating PPTT caused minimal corneal discomfort. The mean (±SD) value for STT was 5.2±1.0mm/min and for PPTT was 13.8±1.5mm/min. The aqueous fraction of rabbit's tears can be successfully measured by PPTT. This report established reference values for PPTT in rabbits. Additionally, the absence of a significant difference in CTT after PPTT compared with controls shows that PPTT is well tolerated by rabbits. Considering the improved comfort (compared with STT), accuracy, and low cost, PPTT is a bona fide method of measuring aqueous tear production in rabbits.

Use of episcleral cyclosporine implants in dogs with keratoconjunctivitis sicca: pilot study.

To describe the use, tolerability, and efficacy of episcleral silicone matrix cyclosporine (ESMC) implants in dogs with keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS). Retrospective study. ESMC implants (1.9 cm length, 30% wt/wt CsA in silicone; with approximately 12 mg of CsA loaded into them) were used in dogs with KCS responsive to topical CsA (good candidate, GC) or not responsive (poor candidate, PC). Ocular surface inflammation scores, Schirmer tear test (STT) values, and ocular discharge quantity were evaluated and compared. Twenty-seven eyes (15 dogs) received an ESMC implant for KCS; 15 eyes were considered GC, and 12 were considered PC. Both GC eyes and PC eyes showed a significant increase in STT values (increase of 7.7 and 8.5 mm/min; P = 0.023 and P = 0.003, respectively) after placement of ESMC implants (mean follow-up 18 ± 2 and 10.4 ± 15 months, respectively). Clinical signs improved significantly in both groups during the same follow-up, with reduction in conjunctival hyperemia (P < 0.001), corneal neovascularization (P = 0.004), corneal opacity (P = 0.003), and ocular discharge (P = 0.002). ESMC implants were well tolerated by all dogs, but two eyes lost the device at 12-months and 1-week follow-up, respectively. Results from this study suggest that the EMSC implants were well tolerated and efficacious in dogs with KCS responsive to topical CsA as well as dogs with poor response to topical therapy. Further study is needed to determine the duration of efficacy and optimal dose of CsA.

Ophthalmic diagnostic tests in captive red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) in Salvador, northeast Brazil.

The aim of this study was to establish normal ophthalmic parameters for select diagnostic tests in red-footed tortoises (Chelonoides carbonaria). A total of 52 animals, approximately 20-30years old, were studied. Ophthalmic diagnostic tests included culturing of the normal conjunctival bacterial flora in summer and winter, evaluation of tear production using Schirmer tear test (STT) and endodontic absorbent paper point tear test in two different environmental temperatures (EAPPTT-1 at 32°C and EAPPTT-2 at 18°C), cytology of conjunctival cells, B-mode ultrasonography, measurement of palpebral fissure length (PFL), and applanation tonometry (in two different positions). In both seasons, Gram-positive bacteria were predominant. Median (± IQR/2) STT was 12.0±3.5mm/min, EAPPTT-1 was 15.9±0.7mm/15s, and EAPPTT-2 was 15.4±0.4mm/min (OD) and 17.8±1.0mm/min (OS). Anterior chamber depth was 1.0±0.1mm, lens axial length was 2.3±0.1mm, vitreous chamber depth was 4.3±0.2mm, and axial globe length was 7.7±0.3mm. PFL was 11.7±1.7mm. Intraocular pressure was 11.5±2.8mmHg for males and 14.0±3.5mmHg for females (dorsoventral position) and 18.0±3.2mmHg for males and 24.1±3.0mmHg for females (ventrodorsal position with inclination of 45°). The ophthalmic parameters reported here can aid in the diagnosis of eye diseases in red-footed tortoises (Chelonoides carbonaria).

Schirmer tear test I and rebound tonometry findings in healthy calves

To describe Schirmer tear test I and rebound tonometry findings in healthy bovine calves. Thirty-three clinically normal dairy breed calves of mean (SD) 11 (1.1) weeks (range, 9.3-13.3 weeks) of age were evaluated. A Schirmer tear test I was performed on each eye followed by tonometry, using a TonoVet(®) without topical anesthesia. We report means (SD) and statistical analysis of data for each assay. For both Schirmer tear test (STT) I and tonometry, significant differences were not found between fellow eyes (P = 0.1536 and P = 0.83, respectively). The mean (SD) STT I value of all eyes was 20.4 (5.0) mm/min (range, 9-34 mm/min) while the mean (SD) intraocular pressure (IOP) value of all eyes was 15.2 (5.2) mmHg (range, 7-25 mmHg). This study reports normal data for the STT I and rebound tonometry in calves. This data may be useful in complete ophthalmic examinations of cattle, guiding diagnosis of glaucoma, uveitis, and keratoconjunctivitis sicca. However, results of these diagnostic modalities must be interpreted in light of clinical signs, given the wide range of normal values obtained in this study.

Comparação entre dois protocolos de tratamento de ceratoconjuntivite seca experimentalmente induzida em coelhos

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar e comparar a eficácia de dois protocolos de tratamento de ceratoconjuntivite seca (CCS) experimentalmente induzida em coelhos: uma formulação oftálmica tópica composta por álcool polivinílico 1,4%, adicionado com acetilcisteína 10% e pilocarpina 1% (AAP), e outro protocolo com o uso do óleo de semente de linhaça (OL) tópico em forma de colírio, durante 12 semanas. Foram utilizados 15 coelhos machos, adultos, da raça Nova Zelândia, alocados aleatoriamente em três grupos: grupo C (controle), grupo AAP (formulação oftálmica) e grupo L (OL tópica). Os animais foram avaliados semanalmente pelo teste lacrimal de Schirmer, teste de fluoresceína e teste de Rosa Bengala; uma vez por mês, pelo exame de citologia esfoliativa ocular; ao final do experimento, pela análise histopatológica da córnea e conjuntiva. Os resultados demonstraram que houve um aumento maior na produção lacrimal quando utilizada a formulação oftálmica, e uma resolução mais rápida das úlceras de córnea, bem como diminuição no número de células desvitalizadas quando utilizado o óleo de semente de linhaça, além de aumento no número de células caliciformes em ambos os grupos de tratamento. A associação desses dois protocolos pode ser no futuro uma alternativa no tratamento da CCS.

Corneal sequestrum in a dog with chronic unilateral keratoconjunctivitis sicca

A 14-year-old 8.2-kg (18.04-lb) castrated male Cairn Terrier with chronic keratoconjunctivitis sicca in the left eye was evaluated because of severe blepharospasm and a black plaque of 3 weeks' duration. Abnormalities of the left eye included a decreased Schirmer tear test value and the presence of a brownish-black plaque in the center of the cornea. The plaque was surrounded by fibrovascular tissue except at the medial aspect where there was mild malacia of the adjacent corneal stroma. The plaque was removed by superficial keratectomy, and a conjunctival graft was performed. Histologic evaluation of the plaque and surrounding cornea revealed ulceration, stromal necrosis, and chronic suppurative keratitis with fibrosis and neovascularization. Evaluation of plaque sections that were stained with Gram and Von-Kossa stains yielded negative results for bacteria and mineralization, respectively; examination of sections stained with periodic acid-Schiff stain revealed multiple intracytoplasmic inclusions in macrophages. Virus isolation and a PCR assay for canine herpesvirus yielded negative results. Transmission electron microscopy revealed collagen disruption with interspersed macrophages and apoptotic keratocytes; no viral particles or evidence of other infectious agents was observed. The graft healed without complication and was trimmed 2 weeks after surgery. Four months after surgery, the Schirmer tear test value remained decreased from reference limits despite topical tacrolimus treatment, and pigmentary keratopathy was present surrounding the graft. Corneal sequestra are rare in species other than cats. In this dog, it was possible that chronic keratoconjunctivitis sicca might have contributed to the development of the corneal sequestrum.

Differences in ocular parameters between diurnal and nocturnal raptors

To establish and compare normal ocular parameters between and within diurnal and nocturnal raptor groups. Eighty-eight ophthalmically normal raptors of six nocturnal and 11 diurnal species were studied. Tear production was measured using Schirmer tear test (STT) and phenol red thread test (PRTT), and applanation tonometry was conducted. Ultrasonographic measurements of axial length (AL), mediolateral axis (ML), vitreous body (VB), and pecten length (PL) were recorded, and conjunctival cultures were obtained. A weak correlation (R=0.312, P=0.006) was found between PRTT and STT. Tear production was significantly lower in nocturnal species (P<0.001), but no difference was observed in intraocular pressure (IOP). VB and PL were significantly longer in diurnals (P<0.001 and P=0.021, respectively), and no significant difference was observed in AL and ML. When comparing results within these groups, there was a significant difference between most species for all parameters except IOP. Fifty-one percent of the examined raptors were positive for mycology or bacteriology, either on culture or PCR. The most common infectious agent isolated was Staphylococcus spp. Phenol red thread test and STT are both valid methods to measure tear production; however, a separate baseline must be determined for each species using these methods, as the results of one method cannot be extrapolated to the other. Due to significant differences observed within diurnal and nocturnal species, it appears that a more intricate division should be used when comparing these parameters for raptors, and the classification of diurnal or nocturnal holds little significance in the baseline of these data.

Ocular findings and reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests in the macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) and southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome)

To describe ophthalmic examination findings and standard diagnostic test results in 2 penguin species. Macaroni & Southern Rockhopper Penguins. Complete ophthalmic examinations including Schirmer tear test (STT), modified phenol red thread test (PTT), tonometry, and echobiometry were performed on penguins housed at the Detroit Zoo. Mean and standard deviation of ophthalmic tests are reported and compared for significance using two sample t-tests with significance set at P<0.05. Correlations between variables were assessed using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Cataracts were the most common finding, present in 64% of Macaroni Penguins, and 68% of Rockhopper Penguins. There were anterior segment anomalies in all eyes with cataracts consistent with lens-induced uveitis. The mean modified PTT for the Macaronis was 24.7±6.37mm/15s and 25.1±7.07mm/15s in the Rockhoppers. The mean STT value for the Macaronis was 12.1±5.43mm/min and 11.0±3.96mm/min in the Rockhoppers. Mean intraocular pressure (IOP) for the Macaronis was 21.9±7.05mmHg measured by applanation tonometry and 29.1±7.16mmHg using rebound tonometry. The Rockhoppers had a mean IOP of 20.0±5.77mmHg and 24.1±5.09mmHg for applanation and rebound tonometry, respectively. In both populations, there was a significant difference in IOP measurement between the two instruments. In the Macaroni penguins, the presence of cataracts correlated significantly with increased age and lower IOP readings. Anterior chamber distance and axial globe length were significantly greater in males than in females in both penguin species.

Effect of Subconjunctival Lacrimal Gland Transplantation in a Rabbit Dry Eye Model

The main and accessory lacrimal glands are involved in reflex and basal secretion of tears, respectively, with the glandular tissue anatomy being similar for both glands. We transplanted part of the main lacrimal gland under the palpebral conjunctiva in a rabbit dry eye model and assessed the therapeutic effect of this procedure. In New Zealand White rabbits, the greater superficial petrosal nerve was cut unilaterally under a microscope. The other eye served as a normal control. For transplantation, approximately 0.07 g of the main lacrimal gland was harvested from the normal side, labeled with octadecylindocarbocyanine, and transplanted under the palpebral conjunctivae of both eyes. At 1 week and 1 month after the transplantation, the eyes were observed, and the Schirmer tear test and histological examination of the palpebral conjunctiva were performed. On the denervated side, tear flow, measured by the Schirmer tear test, recovered at 1 month after the transplantation of the main lacrimal gland compared with that before transplantation. The contralateral control side showed no changes. On the denervated side, the fluorescein score significantly improved at 1 month after transplantation compared with that before transplantation (P < 0.005), whereas the rose bengal score showed no difference. Histological examination revealed that octadecylindocarbocyanine-labeled transplanted main lacrimal gland tissue was present under the palpebral conjunctiva. These results suggest that the partial transplantation of the main lacrimal gland may be effective for treatment of dry eyes.

Ophthalmic diagnostic tests, orbital anatomy, and adnexal histology of the broad‐snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris)

The aim of this study was to establish normal ophthalmic parameters for selected diagnostic tests, and to describe the orbital anatomy and adnexal histology of the broad-snouted caiman. A total of 35 Caiman latirostris that were free of obvious ocular diseases were used to measure the parameters in this investigation. Ages ranged from 5 to 15years. Ophthalmic diagnostic tests were conducted, including evaluation of tear production with Schirmer Tear test-1 (STT1), culture of the conjunctival bacterial flora, applanation tonometry, conjunctival cytology, nictiating membrane incursion frequency test (NMIFT), endodontic absorbent paper point tear test (EAPPTT), palpebral fissure length measurement (PFL) and B-mode ultrasonography. Adnexal histology and skull samples were studied. Mean (±SD) STT1 was 3.4±3.6mm/min (95% confidence interval of 2.01-4.78mm/min), intraocular pressure (IOP) was 12.9±6.2mmHg, NMIFT was 6.0±3.5, EAPPTT was 17.1±2.5mm/min, PFL was 28.9±3.0mm, anterior chamber depth was 3.1±0.3mm, lens axial length was 8.4±0.6mm, vitreous chamber depth was 7.9±0.7mm and axial globe length was 19.9±1.3mm. For all animals evaluated, Bacillus sp., Diphteroids and Staphylococcus sp. were predominant.

O olho da coruja-orelhuda: observações morfológicas, biométricas e valores de referência para testes de diagnóstico oftálmico

Objetivou-se relatar características morfológicas do bulbo ocular e determinar valores de referência para testes oftálmicos selecionados em corujas-orelhudas (Asio clamator). Foram estudados 32 olhos de 16 corujas (Asio clamator), adultas e jovens, machos e fêmeas, de vida livre. Sendo compilados dados referentes a observações morfológicas do crânio, bulbo ocular e anexos, além de mensuração de testes oftálmicos, incluindo, Teste Lacrimal de Schirmer (TLS), cultura da microbiota normal da conjuntiva, estesiometria, pressão intraocular (PIO), espessura de córnea central (ECC), diâmetro horizontal da rima palpebral, diâmetro horizontal da córnea e oftalmoscopia indireta. Vinte e dois tipos de bactérias foram identificados em 12 corujas havendo predominância de microrganismos Gram-positivos. A média encontrada para o TLS foi de 5,03±3,28mm/min, para o diâmetro horizontal da rima palpebral em 16 corujas foi 21,24±1,17mm, e 15,7±2,74mm para o diâmetro horizontal da córnea. O valor médio para o teste de estesiometria foi de 0,80±0,59cm, a PIO média de 13,81±5,62mmHg e ECC média de 0,28±0,03cm. O estudo contribuiu para a caracterização da morfologia ocular e para o estabelecimento de valores de referências de testes diagnósticos oftálmicos em corujas-orelhudas, sendo necessário ainda o desenvolvimento de estudos complementares sobre histologia ocular desta espécie.

Characteristics of, prevalence of, and risk factors for corneal pigmentation (pigmentary keratopathy) in Pugs

To determine the characteristics of, prevalence of, and risk factors for corneal pigmentation (CP) in Pugs. Prospective cross-sectional study. 295 Pugs > 16 weeks old. Ophthalmic examination of the anterior segment of each eye was performed, including determination of tear film characteristics (Schirmer tear test and tear film breakup time) and corneal sensitivity. Digital photographs of the head and each eye were obtained. Corneal pigmentation of eyes was graded as absent, very mild, mild, moderate, or severe. Signalment and medical history information and American Kennel Club registration status were recorded. Results-CP was detected in at least 1 eye of 243 of the 295 (82.4%) Pugs; CP was typically very mild or mild. Detection of CP was not significantly associated with coat color, age, eyelid conformation, or tear film characteristics but was significantly associated with sex of dogs. The severity of CP was not significantly associated with American Kennel Club registration status or age, but was significantly associated with sex, tear film characteristics, and coat color. Iris hypoplasia was detected in 72.1% of the Pugs. Iris-to-iris persistent pupillary membranes were detected in 85.3% of the Pugs. Prevalence of CP in Pugs in this study was high. Unexpectedly high prevalences of iris hypoplasia and persistent pupillary membranes were also identified. The condition identified in these Pugs was a pigmentary keratopathy, rather than pigmentary keratitis or corneal melanosis. This condition may have a genetic basis, and further studies are warranted to determine etiology.

Infrared ocular thermography in dogs with and without keratoconjunctivitis sicca

Infrared thermography was used to measure temperature differences of the corneal surface between nasal and temporal limbus regions and central cornea of normal dogs and dogs with keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), in order to establish temperature values in normal canine eyes and in patients with decreased Schirmer tear tests (STT) values. Dogs investigated were all either patients seen at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of Federal University of Paraná or normal dogs that belonged to the same institution. STT were performed in all eyes. A total of 40 control eyes (STT ≥15mm/min) and 20 eyes with low STT values (STT ≤14mm/min) were examined. The mean STT value for eyes with normal STT values was 22.9±3.9mm/min (mean±standard deviation), and the mean STT value for eyes with low STT value was 7.2±4.8mm/min. The mean corneal temperature was significantly lower in eyes with low STT values than in control eyes (P<0.0001). The following significant correlations were found: (i) Schirmer and breakup time (BUT) (P=0.0001, r=0.5); (ii) STT values and corneal surface temperature (P=0.001, r=0.256); (iii) STT values and age (P=0.0001, r=-0.448); (iv) age and corneal surface temperature (P=0.0001, r=-0.281); and (v) BUT and corneal surface temperature (P=0.0001, r=0.36). Thermography is a method that can differentiate between eyes with normal and abnormal STT values. In the future, thermography might be incorporated as part of the ophthalmic examination and perhaps become a popular ancillary test for the diagnoses of ocular surface disorders.

Ocular emergencies in the dog and cat: part 1

The aim of the two articles in this series is to describe common conditions of the eye and adnexa in canine and feline patients that require urgent action to avoid loss of vision or even loss of the globe. Most ocular emergencies are painful, with analgesia and sometimes sedation required to facilitate examination (topical analgesia with local anaesthetic may be sufficient). A full ocular examination should be performed, with physical examination for other injuries. Where possible tests such as the Schirmer tear test, intraocular pressure measurement, visual reflex testing and fluorescein staining should be included. Ocular ultrasound may also be necessary in cases with opaque ocular media. Using the findings of examination the practitioner can develop a diagnostic and therapeutic plan to stabilise the globe in the emergency situation with the aim to return comfort and preserve vision long term.

Suture anchor placement technique around the insertion of the ventral rectus muscle for the replacement of the prolapsed gland of the third eyelid in dogs: 100 dogs

To evaluate a rapid and efficacious procedure to anchor the prolapsed gland of the third eyelid in dogs. This is a retrospective study of 100 affected dogs (122 eyes) with third eyelid gland prolapse that were surgically anchored with a nonabsorbable suture around the insertion of the ventral rectus muscle. Hundred dogs (122 eyes) were included in this study. Twenty-three pure-bred and several mixed-breed dogs were represented with the right eye affected in 60 cases and the left eye in 62 cases. Thirty-four eyes (27.9%) were previously operated on at another facility prior to referral. The average age of the patients was 2.2 years (57 days to 11 years). No recurrences of gland prolapse were observed over the course of study. Minor intraoperative conjunctival perforations were observed and easily repaired at the time of the surgery in 21 cases (17.2%). Five cases demonstrated preexistent keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), and all had improved Schirmer tear test following surgical correction and medical therapy. The suture anchor placement technique provides a cosmetic, rapid, and successful replacement of the prolapsed gland of the third eyelid in dogs. No recurrences were noted. Complications were easily addressed.