Schengen Research Articles

Efficacy of Using Social Networks in Learning and Teaching Based on Self-Determination Theory: An Interventional Study

Background: Self-determination theory, which deals with motivation and personality, comprises three factors of autonomy, competence and relatedness that can be influenced by the features and potentials of social networks. Objectives We aimed to investigate the influence of social networks on the three main factors of the self-determination theory in learners. Methods: The present case-control study with a pretest-posttest design was conducted among 40 Iranian Ph.D. students who lived in Schengen area countries. Students were randomly divided into control (n = 20) and experimental (n = 20) groups. Before and after holding training sessions through a social media (Facebook) and face to face (FTF) education, Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and the intrinsic motivation inventory were used for data collection. The intrinsic motivation inventory is a valid instrument that evaluates the three factors of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Results: the results indicated a significant difference between the two groups in terms of the three factors. The means of all the three variables improved significantly in the social network group as compared to the FTF group (P = 0.00). Although competence had improved in both groups, this improvement was greater in the social media group relative to the FTF group (P = 0.00). Conclusions: Social networks provide better learning experiences. They improve learning outcomes as they boost learners’ relatedness, competence and autonomy.

The Route of Republic of Moldova in Eastern Partnership: Between Achievements and Political Failures

Eastern Partnership is an initiative of consolidation and deepening of cooperation between European Union and six partner states form Eastern Europe and South Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Republic of Moldova and Ukraine. The cooperation with Eastern Partnership states is founded on two dialog frameworks: bilateral (signing and implementing the association agreement, creating a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, the liberalization of visa regime) and multilateral (it is implemented throughout specialized platforms and initiatives).
 In this article, the author sets the objective to approach multilaterally the position of Republic of Moldova throughout the set of perspectives and opportunities of political, economic and social integration in the European community, outlining specifically that Republic of Moldova has achieved the main objectives that were agreed on in Prague in 2009:signing the Association Agreement with EU, The Agreement of Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area and implementing the liberalization of visa regime in Schengen area for the owners of biometric passports.
 The author's opinion states that the topicality of this study lies in evaluation of the potential of Republic of Moldova to perceive the impact of this European initiative of foreign policy and to value the membershipwithin the Eastern Partnership for the perspective of integration in European Union.
 Keywords: Eastern Partnership, European Union, Republic of Moldova, multilateral and bilateral cooperation

The Development of Politics and the Economy of Romania in the EU

The article proves that an important task of adaptation to new conditions,in which Romania is developing as a full member of the EU,is the "europeanization" of its political and economic spheres,the very mentality of Romanian society.Modern Romania is a state that has radically changed in comparison with that,which in 1989 survived the most turbulent anti-communist revolution in the CEE.Romania has adopted "Europeanism" as a national long-term development project,but ten years after the accession did not convince the partners of the opportunity to enter the Schengen area and protect the external borders of the EU.
 The global crisis of 2008-2009, the struggle of political forces in the parliament, various institutions of other branches of power and beyond,unsolved corruption at all levels – from central to local authorities, has negatively impacted on the vital activity of the state.The deep downturn experienced by the Romanian economy makes the introduction of the scenario of future development created quite problematic.At the same time, the role of the state has not decreased in crisis conditions.There is a growing need to strengthen the function of regulation, control over market relations, increasing the value of the management function.
 Keywords: European Union, European Commission, Romania, integration, political parties, public organizations, government, economy

Europe’s ‘Other’ Open-Border Zone: The Common Travel Area under the Shadow of Brexit

AbstractIn recent years, the Schengen Area—and the suppression within its territory of border controls—has become a strong focus of attention. This article focuses on another region of Europe where such controls have been suppressed: the Common Travel Area (‘CTA’). Historically, both Ireland and the United Kingdom have rejected membership of the Schengen system—albeit securing certain ‘opt-in’ rights—and instead maintained the CTA between their respective jurisdictions. The CTA has, however, garnered relatively little public attention until recently, when concerns as to the implications of Brexit for the maintenance of an open border between Ireland and Northern Ireland have gained ground, and threatened to be a deal breaker in the negotiations under Article 50 TEU on UK exit from the EU (‘Brexit’). This article examines the background to the CTA, exploring its surprisingly fluid legal framework; its development in the legal systems of Ireland and the United Kingdom; and subsequently, how it was exempted from what is now EU law as the Schengen arrangements were integrated into the Union. The recent introduction of the British-Irish Visa Scheme, which formalises some visa rules regarding citizens of third states, and which tends in the direction of consolidating CTA arrangements, is also examined. The article further explores the challenges that confront the CTA in coping with the outcome of the June 2016 Brexit referendum, which should result in the UK leaving the European Union in March 2019, and the implications of Brexit for the CTA. Finally, it seeks to identify some key characteristics of the CTA in light of experience to date.

El restablecimiento temporal de controles en las fronteras interiores de la Unión Europea como respuesta a las amenazas al orden público y a la seguridad interior: entre la excepcionalidad y la normalidad

In recent years, border controls within the Schengen area have been restored and extended almost fifty times in response to the secondary movements of irregular migrants and the increase in cross-border terrorist threats as both elements were considered threats to public order and the internal security of the States. The imposition of controls seems, therefore, to have acquired a certain normality when precisely the Commission itself recalls, in a systematic way, that its application must be exceptional and limited in time. This study intends to make an assessment of the re-establishment of border controls based on the provisions of current legislation and existing practice in order to determine its impact on the current and future definition of the Schengen area as an area that really seeks to ensure free movement of persons.

A View of German-Polish Cross-Border Cooperation: an Experience from the 2007– 2013 INTERREG Programme

The aim of this article is to understand the nature and dynamism of cross-border cooperation in Europe by taking cross-border projects of INTERREG program implemented in the period 2007–2013 as examples and the concepts of (a)symmetry and potential differences as a conceptual framework. The case of the German-Polish border has been chosen and the authors attempt to further the already existing analysis by indicating additional analytical levels and interpreting findings with the help of the concept of asymmetry. INTERREG projects provide a great source of data to help analyse the cooperation processes established within the Schengen Area. The findings of this investigation reflect well the differences between the two countries in many aspects, especially the leading partners in projects (Germans lead more than Poles), as well as the fact that the German actors are more active in general, when at the same time urban and more dynamic areas are more able to take part in projects.

Back to Schengen: the collective securitisation of the EU free-border area

This article considers how a major influx of migrants from North Africa and the Middle East during 2015 led to an EU-initiated collective securitisation of the Schengen space. The events of 2015 represented an internal crisis for the EU. This was not simply because migration stretched host country facilities and created political division within and between the member states. The uncoordinated reintroduction of border controls by some member states threatened the unravelling of the Schengen Agreement itself. The consequent security discourse which then gained currency in EU documents strongly underlined the need ‘to go back to normality’ and ‘to go back to Schengen’, not only to manage increasingly tense relations among member states but also to preserve what was seen as a core achievement of the EU. Contrary to the expectations of mainstream literature on securitisation, the policies enacted in response to the securitisation of Schengen have violated neither ‘normal politics’ of the EU nor existing or planned policies on migration and asylum despite the wide contestation of current EU migration and asylum practices. The article concludes that the normative dimension behind this collective securitisation should not be underestimated or too easily discounted.

Problems of Regionalization in the Light of the Schengen Zone

Globalization is becoming increasingly challenging in the 21st century. Processes that go beyond the horizontal relations of the basic actors of international relations – states – become multifaceted. The Schengen area is an example of a new regional structure (though still not global). Based on the analysis of both EU activities and documents produced by the EC, the author points to the current limitations and potential possibilities of the Brexit Schengen Area. In the author's opinion, only further extension of the Schengen Area, with equal treatment of all its members, can overcome the deadlock which is relevant to the European Union and thus to a large extent the Schengen Area.

Improving asylum seekers’ health awareness in a Hungarian refugee reception centre

Due to its long border of the European Union Schengen Area, Hungary has long been affected by the rapidly growing inward migration towards the EU, which has become more acute in recent years. Inadequate access to healthcare among migrants has been widely reported and this may be due to a vast array of factors and may result in poorer health outcomes. Between August 2014 and April 2015 a questionnaire survey was conducted among migrants from a range of countries residing in the largest Hungarian refugee reception centre to establish participants' health knowledge and access to healthcare in Hungary (medical assessment, vaccination, etc.). The survey was complemented with an educational program which aimed to increase participants' awareness of healthcare provision and to promote the prevention of the infectious diseases that are common in Europe. The results showed that half the participants (52%) had no information of healthcare provision and the majority (61%) did not participate in any medical assessment since arriving in the reception centre. Since under-immunization may be a potential risk for the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases for recipient countries, it was alarming that a significant proportion of African participants (21%) reported not having received any childhood vaccinations. Data demonstrated deficiencies in participants' health knowledge and also an urgent need to address mental health problems of arriving migrants. This article offers a valuable insight into the role of health educational interventions conducted for asylum seekers in refugee reception centres and discusses a number of practical application aspects for future educational programs.

The Global Evolution of Travel Visa Regimes.

The Global Evolution of Travel Visa Regimes.

ENHANCING ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY IN THE IN-SERVICE TRAINING COURSE “BORDER CHECKS AT A ROAD BORDER CROSSING POINT”

English language proficiency is one of the competences Latvian border guards should have in order to communicate successfully with persons who wish to travel and reside in the Schengen area. The present article is a survey of the in-service training course on basic English professional terminology “Border checks at road border crossing points” which has been developed and implemented in the State Border Guard College of the Republic of Latvia. The survey was carried out in the period from September 2015 until April 2018 and focused on the analysis of the course development process and results of its implementation. Based on the results of the questioning, the participants of the course and their own observations the authors put forward suggestions for possible improvements of the quality of the course and border guards English language training.

THE APPLICATION OF THE ARIMA MODEL IN FORECASTING THE PASSENGER TRAFFIC ON THE EXAMPLE OF BORDER CROSSINGS BETWEEN THE SUBCARPATHIAN PROVINCE AND UKRAINE

Accession of Poland to the European Union meant that its eastern border became the external frontier of the Community. The next step in the European integration was joining the Schengen Zone by Poland. Polish citizens may freely travel throughout the Schengen Zone and the state was obliged to tighten its eastern border. Under these circumstances conducting research on passenger traffic has become a vital issue, with particular focus on the eastern frontier. In the article an attempt is made at examining the possibility of forecasting passenger traffic on the example of border crossing points between the Subcarpathian Province and Ukraine using the ARIMA models. Confirmation of these possibilities seems to be crucial as the number of people crossing the border is characterized by high variability and sensitivity to the political situation. The study is based on the information provided by the Polish Border Guard. The conducted time series analysis is of a multi-purpose character. It may be used to support decision making processes of investment, organizational, as well as socio-political nature.

Tak dalecy czy/i tak bliscy? Obraz Czechów w percepcji polskich nauczycieli

Since joining the Schengen Area by Poland and the Czech Republic, their inhabitants have had the right to free moving. Undoubtedly, the location in the borderland is beneficial, due to the possibilities of implementing joint undertakings, which result e.g. from transfrontier agreements and the participation in some projects addressed to the residents of the countries divided/joint by the border. Borderland residence is favourable for establishing direct contacts with neighbours. In the presented study, some questions are raised concerning the knowledge the teachers living in the borderland have about their neighbours and the way in which the neighbours are described by them. The choice of teachers as the examined sample was purposeful, as they have the possibility to shape the neighbours’ image of their learners. Either in a conscious way or not, they can pass down the stereotypical image which they have, or the opposite – present the knowledge and image which will encourage learners to contacts with Czechs. Associations, stereotypes and prejudices largely determine the attitude to other nations and the way of undertaking actions. This is particularly important in the situation when the respondents can shape similar attitudes of other people – in this case, their learners.

La sécurisation de la frontière ou l’apparition de territoires-frontières

Les frontières Schengen sont aujourd’hui bousculées par les tensions géopolitiques internationales et les flux migratoires internationaux. Nous nous intéressons aux processus de transformation des modalités de contrôles aux frontières pour comprendre comment le territoire est utilisé par les pouvoirs publics pour garantir à la fois les fonctions de filtres et celles permettant la fluidité des échanges. Chaque fonction de la frontière est localisée sur le lieu où elle pourra être utilisée de manière performante, les lieux de la coopération ne seront pas ceux des échanges ou ceux du contrôle. Nous assistons donc à un éclatement spatial de la frontière s’organisant en système frontalier, fruit d’une co-construction de la frontière, entre les différents acteurs, notamment publics et privés mais aussi de part et d’autre de la frontière, pour optimiser la frontière dans sa dualité ouverture-sécurité.

Migration Crisis - A Main Priority for the Fifth Polish Presidency of the Visegrád Group

Abstract The migration crisis and related challenges for the future of the Schengen area are some of the main problems facing the EU. The opinion of the Visegrad Four on this issue, however, seriously differs from that of Brussels. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia are firmly against the quota principle in the allocation of migrants. The aim of this article is to present the migrant crisis as a top priority during the fifth in the history Polish rotating presidency of the Visegrad Four - from July 1, 2016 to June 30, 2017. This objective will be realized through the implementation of basic tasks - analysis of the documents adopted at the forums of the organization, and the views of leading politicians from the Visegrad countries

An Examination and Evaluation of Multi-Level Governance During Migration Crisis: The Case of Slovenia

Paper presents the value added to the analysis of the functioning of multi-level governance in the context of EU. Furthermore, it contributes to the small state studies, as the mitigation of crisis from the perspective of small state is analysed.The aim of the research was to determine whether the multi-level governance during the large-scale crisis was successful and what factors affected the level of success.The analysis utilizes of the case study method, where the crisis responses during the peak of Western Balkan migration route and Slovenia as a small state on Schengen border serve as examples of examination and evaluation.Results show unsuccessfulness of multi-level governance during the crisis, with mostly top-down direction of decision-making, and particularly the subnational level being poorly involved into the process. In addition, also layering of policy creation and implementation can be observed.The results of the analysis also pointed out that the multi-level governance in the case of migration crisis on the Western Balkans Route can be positioned as the type 1 governance, if we follow the outline of Hooghe and Marks (2003).The results indicate that unsuccessful multi-level governance had negative impacts on managing the crisis, as well as on perceptions about EU and Schengen Zone.This study is novel in its content, as it represents the first examination and evaluation of multi-level governance during the EU migration crisis, where Western Balkan route and Slovenia as small state on the outer Schengen zone border serve as a case study for the evaluation.

Schengen Cooperation: What Scholars Make of It

ABSTRACT The Schengen cooperation has been one of the most debated European issues since the migration flows into the EU increased in 2015. This survey article aims to give an overview of the scholarly literature on the Schengen Area which can help see the current issues in a broader theoretical and historical perspective. Often, researchers emphasize the difficulties the Schengen project experiences. They criticize that security is more important than human rights, EU citizens are more privileged than third country nationals, states use too much discretion in terms of interpreting the Schengen Acquis, etc. Regarding examined aspects of the Schengen cooperation, scholars focus predominantly on borders, security, agency, and the gap between legislation and practice. On the other hand, the issues of solidarity, resilience, and symbolism have been rather neglected so far. However, exactly these aspects could help clarify the current situation within the Schengen Area. To conclude, Schengen seems to be a resilient project, albeit full of ambiguities.

Preventieve politiecontroles en interne grenscontroles in het Schengengebied

Ever since the 2015 start of what is now often referred to as the European “migration “crisis”, European member states have been struggling with one of the key fundaments of the European Union and in particular the Schengen Agreement: the principle of free movement. Whereas this principle entails that people should be able to move freely within the Schengen Area, as a result of the ongoing securitization and politicization of migration, Member States are exploring the different opportunities the Schengen Border Code allows them to monitor intra-Schengen cross-border mobility. In doing so, countries seem to have two options: either to temporarily reintroduce border controls or to – permanently – carry out police or immigration controls in an area around the border. In this article we explore and critically assess the choices various countries have made and what seems to be the position of the European Commission in all this.

Behind Closed Doors: Discourses and Strategies in the European Securitized Borderlands in Moldova, Serbia and Ukraine

ABSTRACTSince the enlargements of 2004 and 2007 European integration has brought about major changes for the citizens of Central and Eastern Europe, such as a process of re-bordering. The accession of countries in the region to the EU, and for some to the Schengen Area, has strengthened borders where there was previously fluidity. This is the starting point of a research on the populations located on the non-EU side of the EU border. The paper takes as a case study Romanian populations living in border regions in Moldova, Serbia, and Ukraine to investigate local discourses of the border and strategies put forward to overcome what is often perceived as an artificial obstacle. Collected through an ethnography of “ordinary citizens,” the data demonstrate how the securitization of the EU border has led to the development of instrumental identities and practices of those living on the “wrong” side of the EU borders.

Airline loyalty (programs) across borders: A geographic discontinuity approach

We analyze brand loyalty advantages of national airlines in their domestic countries using geocoded data from a major international frequent flier program. We employ a geographic discontinuity design that estimates discontinuities in program activity at the national borders of the program’s sponsoring airlines in the Schengen area of Europe. We document that foreign consumers earn about 60% less miles and are 70% less likely to be a program member. Controlling for self-selection, we also find suggestive evidence for higher purchase frequency and transaction size by domestic members. These results imply that national airlines enjoy a large loyalty advantage in their domestic country, and contribute to an explanation as to why international flights by third country carriers are still a small share of the market.