Saussurea Species Research Articles

Predicting the potential habitat suitability of Saussurea species in China under future climate scenarios using the optimized Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model

The Saussurea species, renowned for its biodiversity and medicinal significance in high-elevation regions, faces endangerment due to climate change and human activities. Despite this, conservation research on Saussurea has been limited. To fill the knowledge gap, this study employed the optimized MaxEnt model to simulate Saussurea's habitat suitability and analyze key environmental factors influencing its distribution. Additionally, considering the sensitivity of Saussurea habitats to climate change, this research also simulated the changes in suitable habitat and distribution centroid shifts of Saussurea under different climate scenarios (SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585) for the periods 2040s, 2060s, 2080s and 2100s. Findings indicated that Saussurea's suitable habitat was primarily located in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, notably within the Himalayas and Hengduan Mountains. The areas of extremely and moderately suitable habitats were 1.106 × 10⁵ km2 and 3.436 × 10⁵ km2, respectively. Elevation, Isothermality (Bio3), and Temperature Annual Range (Bio7) were identified as the main environmental factors. Future projections suggest severe habitat fragmentation and a decrease in suitable habitat areas. By 2100, the total area of suitable Saussurea habitat will decrease under the SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585 scenarios to 8.658 × 10⁵ km2, 6.971 × 10⁵ km2, 5.811 × 10⁵ km2, and 5.979 × 10⁵ km2, respectively. Additionally, a slight southeastward shift in the distribution centroid was observed. This study is expected to provide guidance for the conservation of Saussurea and alpine plant biodiversity.

Acute toxicity appraisal of Saussurea heteromalla extract and development of its chemotherapeutic herbal dosage form.

Ethnopharmacological relevance of Saussurea species for anti-cancer compounds instigated us to develop chemotherapeutic herbal tablets. This study was an ongoing part of our previous research based on the scientific evaluation of Saussurea heteromalla (S. heteromalla) for anti-cancer lead compounds. In the current study, S. heteromalla herbal tablets (500 /800 mg) were designed and evaluated for anti-cancer activity. Arctigenin was found as a bioactive lead molecule with anti-cancer potential for cervical cancer. The in vitro results on the HeLa cell line supported the ethnopharmacological relevance and traditional utilization of S. heteromalla and provided the scientific basis for the management of cervical cancer as proclaimed by traditional practitioners in China. LD50 of the crude extract was established trough oral acute toxicity profiling in mice, wherein the minimum lethal dose was noticed as higher than 1000 mg/kg body weight orally. Chromatographic fingerprint analysis ensured the identity and consistency of S. heteromalla in herbal tablets in terms of standardization of the herbal drug. About 99.15% of the drug (S. heteromalla crude extract) was recovered in herbal tablets (RSD: 0.45%). In vitro drug release profile was found to be more than 87% within 1 h, which was also correlated with different mathematical kinetic models of drug release (r2 = 0.992), indicating that drug release from matrix tablets into the blood is constant throughout the delivery. The dosage form was found stable after an accelerated stability parameters study which may be used for anti-cervical cancer therapy in the future, if it qualifies successful preclinical investigation parameters.

Comparative plastome analysis and taxonomic classification of snow lotus species (Saussurea, Asteraceae) in Central Asia and Southern Siberia

Four species of Saussurea, namely S. involucrata, S. orgaadayi, S. bogedaensis, and S. dorogostaiskii, are known as the “snow lotus,” which are used as traditional medicines in China (Xinjiang), Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Russia (Southern Siberia). These species are threatened globally, because of illegal harvesting and climate change. Furthermore, the taxonomic classification and identification of these threatened species remain unclear owing to limited research. The misidentification of medicinal species can sometimes be harmful to health. Therefore, the phylogenetic and genomic features of these species need to be confirmed. In this study, we sequenced five complete chloroplast genomes and seven nuclear ITS regions of four snow lotus species and other Saussurea species. We further explored their genetic variety, selective pressure at the sequence level, and phylogenetic relationships using the chloroplast genome, nuclear partial DNA sequences, and morphological features. Plastome of the snow lotus species has a conserved structure and gene content similar to most Saussurea species. Two intergenic regions (ndhJ–ndhK and ndhD-psaC) show significantly high diversity among chloroplast regions. Thus, ITS and these markers are suitable for identifying snow lotus species. In addition, we characterized 43 simple sequence repeats that may be useful in future population genetic studies. Analysis of the selection signatures identified three genes (rpoA, ndhB, and ycf2) that underwent positive selection. These genes may play important roles in the adaptation of the snow lotus species to alpine environments. S. dorogostaiskii is close to S. baicalensis and exhibits slightly different adaptation from others. The taxonomic position of the snow lotus species, confirmed by morphological and molecular evidence, is as follows: (i) S. involucrata has been excluded from the Mongolian flora due to misidentification as S. orgaadayi or S. bogedaensis for a long time; (ii) S. dorogostaiskii belongs to section Pycnocephala subgenus Saussurea, whereas other the snow lotus species belong to section Amphilaena subgenus Amphilaena; and (iii) S. krasnoborovii is synonymous of S. dorogostaiskii. This study clarified the speciation and lineage diversification of the snow lotus species in Central Asia and Southern Siberia.

Immunomodulatory Activity of Polysaccharides Isolated from Saussurea salicifolia L. and Saussurea frolovii Ledeb.

The genus Saussurea has been used in the preparation of therapies for a number of medical problems, yet not much is known about the therapeutic high-molecular-weight compounds present in extracts from these plants. Since polysaccharides are important in immune modulation, we investigated the chemical composition and immunomodulatory activity of Saussurea salicifolia L. and Saussurea frolovii Ledeb polysaccharides. Water-soluble polysaccharides from the aerial parts of these plants were extracted using water at pHs of 2 and 6 and subsequently precipitated in ethanol to obtain fractions SSP2 and SSP6 from S. salicifolia and fractions SSF2 and SSF6 from S. frolovii. The molecular weights of fractions SSP2, SSP6, SFP2, and SFP6 were estimated to be 143.7, 113.2, 75.3, and 64.3 kDa, respectively. The polysaccharides from S. frolovii contained xylose (67.1-71.7%) and glucose (28.3-32.9%), whereas the polysaccharides from S. frolovii contained xylose (63.1-76.7%), glucose (11.8-19.2%), galactose (4.7-8.3%), and rhamnose (6.8-9.4%). Fractions SSP2, SSP6, and SFP2 stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production by murine macrophages, and NO production induced by SSP2, SSP6, and SFP2 was not inhibited by polymyxin B treatment of the fractions, whereaspolymyxin B treatment diminished the effects of SFP6, suggesting that SFP6 could contain lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The LPS-free fractions SSP2, SSP6, and SFP2 had potent immunomodulatory activity, induced NO production, and activated transcription factors NF-κB/AP-1 in human monocytic THP-1 cells and cytokine production by human MonoMac-6 monocytic cells, including interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-γ, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). These data suggest that at least part of the beneficial therapeutic effects reported for water extracts of the Saussurea species are due to the modulation of leukocyte functions by polysaccharides.

Distribution of Saussurea species on the territory of Zhongar-Alatau State National Natural Park

The article presents the results of geobotanical studies of genus Saussurea in the conditions of the Zhongar-Alatau State National Natural Park. The lack of knowledge of the species diversity of endemic species, including genus Saussurea is an actual problem. In the Dzungarian Alatau there are more than 76 species of endemic plants, including Saussurea species listed in the Red Book. The species diversity of genus Saussurea in Kazakhstan is represented by 41 species, of which 8 species are endemic for Kazakhstan. The species diversity of Saussurea genus in the conditions of the Dzungarian Alatau, their distribution and phytocenotic characteristics were studied. The mountainous regions of Kazakhstan are characterized by a belt distribution, high biodiversity, rich vegetation and specific of flora, and on the territory of the Dzungarian Alatau, genus Saussurea is represented by 11 species, among which there are 2 endemic species (S. ninae, S. coronate), as well as 1 relict endemic (S. involucrata). It is established that a large number of Saussurea species grow at an altitude of 1600-3000 above sea level. 5 species of Saussure (S. schanginiana, S. leucophylla, S. gnaphaloides, S. sordida and S. involucrata) were found at an altitude of 2600-3200 m, which proves that these species are high-altitude.

Comparative plastomes and phylogenetic analysis of seven Korean endemic Saussurea (Asteraceae)

BackgroundSaussurea is one of the most species-rich genera in the Cardueae, Asteraceae. There are approximately 40 Saussurea species distributed in Korea, with nearly 40% of them endemics. Infrageneric relationships remain uncertain due to insufficient resolutions and low statistical support. In this study, we sequenced the plastid genomes of five Korean endemic Saussurea (S. albifolia, S. calcicola, S. diamantica, S. grandicapitula, and S. seoulensis), and comparative analyses including two other endemics (S. chabyoungsanica and S. polylepis) were conducted.ResultsThe plastomes of Korean endemics were highly conserved in gene content, order, and numbers. Exceptionally, S. diamantica had mitochondrial DNA sequences including two tRNAs in SSC region. There were no significant differences of the type and numbers of SSRs among the seven Korean endemics except in S. seoulensis. Nine mutation hotspots with high nucleotide diversity value (Pi > 0.0033) were identified, and phylogenetic analysis suggested that those Korean endemic species most likely evolved several times from diverse lineages within the genus. Moreover, molecular dating estimated that the Korean endemic species diverged since the late Miocene.ConclusionsThis study provides insight into understanding the plastome evolution and evolutionary relationships of highly complex species of Saussurea in Korean peninsula.

Comparative study on flavonoids from Tibetan medicinal plants Saussurea species using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS

Three kinds of “Snowlotus” including Saussurea involucrate, Saussurea medusa and Saussurea laniceps had been prescribed as folk medicine interchangeably in Tibet and Uygur, China. To verify the feasibility of this phenomenon, a HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS method was developed in this study to determine the flavonoid compounds from three Saussurea species qualitatively and quantitatively. The LODs and LOQs ranged from 0.0263–0.1172 µg/mL and 0.0862–0.3867 µg/mL, respectively. The relative standard deviation (RSD × 100%) of the validation for the instrument precision was below 2.03%, while the RSD × 100% values for the method precision were below 5.73%, respectively. The recoveries ranged from 92.98–101.79%. These results further demonstrated that this method was precise and practical for determining flavonoid compounds from three Saussurea species. In this study, 14 kinds of constituents were simultaneously identified according to the ESI-MS data and previous studies. The contents of total flavonoids and eight components were determined with spectrophotometry and HPLC-DAD methods, respectively. The results demonstrated that the total flavonoids in S. involucrate had the hightest value and there were some differences in the content of eight flavonoids. For S. involucrate, a proportion of rutin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, and hispidulin were detected. For S. laniceps, Arctiin, apigenin, and arctigenin were the major flavonoid compounds. For S. medusa, seven types of compounds were detected and arctiin presented the highest value, whereas apigenlin exhibited the lowest value. This comparative study may promote the differentiation in use of three kinds of snowlotus.

Saussurea namhaedoana (Compositae), a new species from Namhaedo Island, Korea

Saussurea namhaedoana, a new endemic species narrowly restricted to Namhaedo Island of Korea, is reported in this study. It can be distinguished from other congeneric species of Saussurea in Korea by having persistent radical leaves until flowering, hastate or sagittate leaves with mucronate toothed to undulate-lobulate margins, grayish cobwebby hairs on abaxial leaf surfaces when young, and tubular involucre with grayish cobwebby hairs. Morphologically, S. namhaedoana is closely related to other species in Korea, such as S. gracilis Maxim., S. insularis Kitam., S. seoulensis Nakai and S. albifolia M. J. Nam and H. T. Im, sharing grayish or white hairs on the abaxial leaf surfaces. It, however, can be distinguished from its close relatives by having a distinct leaf shape, i.e., sagittate or hastate leaves. The phylogenetic relationship relative to congeners in East Asia is yet to be determined.

Bioassay-guided fractionation and isolation of Arctigenin from Saussurea heteromalla for in vitro and in silico cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells

Ethnopharmacological relevance of Saussurea species to anticancer compounds instigated the present research. Therefore to search the bioactive anticancer lead compound (s) scientifically bioactivity guided fractionation of Saussurea heteromalla (Compositae) was carried out that resulted in the isolation and characterization of three butyrolactone (lignan) secondary metabolites i.e. arctigenin (1), arctiin (2) and matairesinol (3). Compounds (1) and (2) were already reported in S. heteromalla, whereas compound (3) is isolated for the first time in present study. Moreover in vitro antiproliferative activity of arctigenin against HeLa cells (IC50:11.04 μg/ml) along with its docking against two HeLa proteins cellular tumor antigen p53 “−7.31 kcal/mol” and NF-κB “−6.31 kcal/mol” are reported here for the first time. These docking results support the cytotoxic potential of arctigenin and authenticate it as valuable drug for cervical cancer. Based on cytotoxic activity and docking results compound (1) is striking substrate for further research to explore its mechanism of action in vivo. The structure of three compounds was elucidated by the interpretation of their ESI-MS, 1H and 13C NMR, FT-IR and UV results and by comparison to the already published data.

Transcriptomes of Saussurea (Asteraceae) Provide Insights into High-Altitude Adaptation.

Understanding how species adapt to extreme environments is an extension of the main goals of evolutionary biology. While alpine plants are an ideal system for investigating the genetic basis of high-altitude adaptation, genomic resources in these species are still limited. In the present study, we generated reference-level transcriptomic data of five Saussurea species through high-throughput sequencing and de novo assembly. Three of them are located in the highland of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), and the other two are close relatives distributed in the lowland. A series of comparative and evolutionary genomics analyses were conducted to explore the genetic signatures of adaptive evolution to high-altitude environments. Estimation of divergence time using single-copy orthologs revealed that Saussurea species diversified during the Miocene, a period with extensive tectonic movement and climatic fluctuation on the QTP. We characterized gene families specific to the alpine species, including genes involved in oxidoreductase activity, pectin catabolic process, lipid transport, and polysaccharide metabolic process, which may play important roles in defense of hypoxia and freezing temperatures of the QTP. Furthermore, in a phylogenetic context with the branch model, we identified hundreds of genes with signatures of positive selection. These genes are involved in DNA repair, membrane transport, response to UV-B and hypoxia, and reproductive processes, as well as some metabolic processes associated with nutrient intake, potentially responsible for Saussurea adaptation to the harsh environments of high altitude. Overall, our study provides valuable genomic resources for alpine species and gained helpful insights into the genomic basis of plants adapting to extreme environments.

Saussurea talungensis (Asteraceae), a new species from Humla, Nepal Himalayas.

A new species Saussurea talungensis S.K.Ghimire & H.K.Rana, sp. nov. (sect. Strictae), from Talung valley of Humla district, Nepal, is described and illustrated. Morphologically, this species resembles Saussurea roylei and Saussurea lanata in habit, though it can be distinguished in having longer leaf petioles, purplish leaf margin, 1 or 3 capitula, shorter phyllaries, shorter receptacle bristles and the same anthers, comparatively shorter corolla with shorter lobes. Phylogenomic analysis also supports S. talungensis as a distinct species of Saussurea. Here, we provide taxonomic note, distribution map and phylogenomic inference to distinguish the new species and its allied members.

Complete chloroplast genome of Saussurea inversa (Asteraceae) and phylogenetic analysis

Saussurea inversa Raab-Straube is a small perennial and polycarpic herb that is distributed on the rocky slopes of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau (QTP) at an altitude of 3700–5400 meters. It has a chloroplast genome structure similar to that of other species of Saussurea. It is 152,102 bp in size, including a large single-copy (LSC) region of 83,450 bp, a small single-copy (SSC) region of 18,286 bp and a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) of 25,183 bp. The chloroplast genome of S. inversa encodes 113 genes, containing 80 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 29 tRNA and four rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis shows that S. inversa is clustered with S. pseudosimpsoniana and S. laniceps.

Saussurea lappa: A Comprehensive Review on its Pharmacological Activity and Phytochemistry

Around 3000 species of Saussurea are known, however Saussurea lappa Clarke which is perennial herb and has been traditionally used as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, medicine without many adverse effects. Phytochemistry of Saussurea lappa after thorough literature survey revealed various varied and copious metabolites such as sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, phytosterols, lignans, terpenes. Many of these compounds have been found to possess a wide range of biological activity such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hepatotoxic, anti-viral, etc. Among sesquiterpenes particularly Dehydrocostuslactone, dihydrocostunolide, costunolide Lappadilactone, have been isolated as the main chemical constituents. This review aims to cover published work from public databases (e.g. PubMed, Google Scholar, ResearchGate) and Non-English, Ph.D./MS thesis databases (e.g. CKNIChina, Jairo-Japan, Myto-Malaysia, Shodhganga-India) with a particular focus on phytochemistry and therapeutic uses of different fractions as well as isolated compounds from Saussurea lappa.

POLYSACCHARIDES OF THREE SAUSSUREA DC SPECIES (S. CONTROVERSA, S. SALICIFOLIA, S. FROLOVII): ISOLATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND INFLUENCE ON NO-PRODUCING PROPERTIES OF MACROPHAGES

Polysaccharides PS1 and PS2 with a yield 1–2% were obtained from the above-ground part of three species of Saussurea: S. controversa DC., S. salicifolia L. and S. frolovii Ledeb. sequential extraction with water at 25 and 70 °C. PS1 free from protein impurities. A protein that is not removed by the Sevag method is co-extracted with PS2. All polysaccharides contain residues of uronic acids, the highest content found in PS1 and PS2 from S. contrоversa. The molecular weights (Mw) of PS1 from S. controversa, S. salicifolia and S. frolovii were 448.13, 158.49, 64.03 kDa and PS2 – 101.82, 94.60, 225.42 kDa, respectively. Interspecific differences in the monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides were revealed. Galactose (Gal) and Arabinose (Ara) residues are major, and Rhamnose (Rha), Xylose (Xyl) and Mannose (Man) residues are minor components of the carbohydrate chains isolated by PS. PS1 S. salicifolia and S. frolovii and PS2 S. salicifolia do not contain endotoxins impurities and have a NO-activating effect on antigen-presenting cells (macrophages), significantly exceeding the effect of muramyl dipeptide.

Bumblebees (Bombus rufofasciatus Smith) pollinate the enclosed inflorescences of the endangered Brahma’s lotus (Saussurea obvallata: Asteraceae) of the Indian Himalaya

Brahma’s lotus (Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Edgew.: Asteraceae) that grows near the permanent snow line in the Himalaya, is one of several so-called “glasshouse” plants, which enclose their inflorescences in large translucent bracts. Around the temple of Kedarnath (Uttarakhand: India), where this study was conducted, the inflorescences are harvested for offerings and for sale to pilgrims. In addition, the plant has many medicinal uses. We report on the reproductive biology of S. obvallata with the aim of understanding its distinctive morphology and also to gain insight into how it might respond to harvesting. The main questions were: (1) How does population density vary in relation to altitude? (2) What is the flowering and leafing phenology of S. obvallata? (3) Do populations differ in morphology? (4) Does the pollen to ovule ratio suggest outcrossing? (5) What pollinates S. obvallata, and how does visitation rate vary across sites? (6) Is the species self-compatible? (7) Does it require pollinators for seed production? (8) Is seed set pollen-limited? (9) Do the bracts enhance seed set, and (10) Is the species semelparous? To answer these questions, we recorded population density and floral visitors across an elevational gradient, conducted pollinator exclusion and hand-pollination experiments, modified floral morphology by folding back the bracts of experimental plants, and observed the life cycle. We found that the flowers were pollinated by rufous-striped bumblebees, Bombus rufofasciatus Smith, which are strong enough to separate and clamber between the whorled bracts. Paradoxically, visitation rates were higher at lower elevation, whereas the plants survived better at higher elevation. The bracts enhanced seed production, probably by keeping the inflorescences dry and warm during the wet monsoon (August). Despite the reduction of density due to harvesting, plants at one site were not pollen-limited and were capable of autonomous self-pollination. Nevertheless, seed set was somewhat higher in plants left open to receive pollinator visits. Self-compatibility and iteroparity are predicted to render the species less sensitive to the harvesting of inflorescences that some other Saussurea species, which are semelparous and self-incompatible. However, the currently high rate of harvesting highlights the need for monitoring and for a resource management strategy.

COMPONENT COMPOSITION OF PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS OF SEVEN SAUSSUREA SPECIES

Using HPLC method was studied the component composition of phenolic compounds of the fractions from extracts of the seven Saussurea DC species, grown in Siberia: S. controversa DC, S. latifolia Ledeb., S. parviflora (Poir.) DC, S. frolovii Ledeb., S. amara (L.) DC, S. salicifolia DC, S. daurica Adams. In samples S. amara, S. frolowii, S. daurica, S. salicifolia, S. latifolia, S. controversa a significant amount of syringin (up to 25.0 mg/g of extract) was found. Phenol carboxylic acids are chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic, syringic, oxybenzoic and salicylic acids with a predominance of chlorogenic acid (up to 53.3 mg/g). Isocvercitrine is identified in S. parviflora, S. amara, S. salicifolia and S. frolowii, cynaroside in S. daurica and S. frolowii, hyperoside in S. salicifolia and S. parviflora; rutin in S. amara, S. controversa and S. parviflora. In S. salicifolia ethylacetate fractions avicularin was found for the first time. The content of flavonoids in seven Saussurea species from 28.1 to 133.2 mg/g of extract was changed.

Comparative high-performance thin-layer chromatography profiling of Saussurea lappa and Saussurea auriculata

Saussurea genus belonging to the Asteraceae family comprises of many medicinally important species. In the present study, two species of Saussurea, i.e., S. lappa and S. auriculata, have been evaluated for two marker compounds (β-sitosterol and lupeol). Methanolic extracts of flower and root parts were prepared, and chromatographic separation was achieved using toluene‒ethyl acetate‒glacial acetic acid (14.5:4.5:1.0) as the mobile phase. The RF values for β-sitosterol and lupeol were found to be 0.71 and 0.88, respectively. The linear regression analysis from the calibration plot shows good linear relationship with regression coefficient r = 0.999, within the range of 100–400 ng. The method was validated in terms of limits of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ), precision, and accuracy. Maximum amounts of both the compounds have been found in S. auriculata. The method applied is simple and reliable to verify these marker compounds in other Saussurea species.

Exploring data processing strategies in NGS target enrichment to disentangle radiations in the tribe Cardueae (Compositae)

Target enrichment is a cost-effective sequencing technique that holds promise for elucidating evolutionary relationships in fast-evolving lineages. However, potential biases and impact of bioinformatic sequence treatments in phylogenetic inference have not been thoroughly explored yet. Here, we investigate this issue with an ultimate goal to shed light into a highly diversified group of Compositae (Asteraceae) constituted by four main genera: Arctium, Cousinia, Saussurea, and Jurinea. Specifically, we compared sequence data extraction methods implemented in two easy-to-use workflows, PHYLUCE and HybPiper, and assessed the impact of two filtering practices intended to reduce phylogenetic noise. In addition, we compared two phylogenetic inference methods: (1) the concatenation approach, in which all loci were concatenated in a supermatrix; and (2) the coalescence approach, in which gene trees were produced independently and then used to construct a species tree under coalescence assumptions. Here we confirm the usefulness of the set of 1061 COS targets (a nuclear conserved orthology loci set developed for the Compositae) across a variety of taxonomic levels. Intergeneric relationships were completely resolved: there are two sister groups, Arctium-Cousinia and Saussurea-Jurinea, which are in agreement with a morphological hypothesis. Intrageneric relationships among species of Arctium, Cousinia, and Saussurea are also well defined. Conversely, conflicting species relationships remain for Jurinea. Methodological choices significantly affected phylogenies in terms of topology, branch length, and support. Across all analyses, the phylogeny obtained using HybPiper and the strictest scheme of removing fast-evolving sites was estimated as the optimal. Regarding methodological choices, we conclude that: (1) trees obtained under the coalescence approach are topologically more congruent between them than those inferred using the concatenation approach; (2) refining treatments only improved support values under the concatenation approach; and (3) branch support values are maximized when fast-evolving sites are removed in the concatenation approach, and when a higher number of loci is analyzed in the coalescence approach.

New Saussurea (Asteraceae) species from Bogeda Mountain, eastern Tianshan, China, and inference of its evolutionary history and medical usage.

In this study, Saussurea bogedaensis Yu-J. Wang & Jie Chen, a new species from Bogeda Mountain in the eastern part of the Tianshan Mountains, is described and discussed based on evidence in terms of both morphological and genetic data. S. bogedaensis is morphologically similar to S. involucrata, which is distributed in the western part of the Tianshan Mountains, and it is well known because of its beauty, rarity, and medicinal value. The new species is also similar to S. orgaadayi, which is distributed in the nearby Altai Mountains. Our genetic data support the close relationships among these three species. According to their allopathic distributions, we suggest that these three species are derived from the same ancestor but that they differentiated after reaching their current range. In addition, we propose that the new species might serve as an alternative to S. involucrata in medicine due to their very high similarity. However, this species appears to be rare because we only found six mature individuals in the field despite extensive investigations.

Conservation categories and rarity types of Siberian Saussurea species

The criteria for assessing conservation categories of rare species are not identical in drafting the red lists of Russia and the IUCN. By the example of genus Saussurea (Compositae), we have shown that the conservation measures for some endangered species do not match their state. We conducted indicator analyses on two factors of more than 9000 relevés with Saussurea species with large ranges and determined their rarity types according to D. Rabinowitz. Only 2 Siberian Saussurea species are not characterised by any type of rarity. The other 54 taxa all feature a small range, low abundance or high habitat specificity.