Saturation Curve Research Articles

On-site measurement of the hysteresis curve for improved modelling of transformers

Transient simulations are usually carried out to analyse the behaviour of control and protection systems when performing switching action in power transformers. For this reason, the saturation curve and/or the hysteresis curve of the transformer must be properly modelled. However, in most of the cases the real saturation/hysteresis curve of a transformer is not known, because such measurements are not carried out as part of the factory tests of a transformer. This article describes a method to measure the hysteresis- and saturation curve with a portable measuring system on-site. The added value of the measured saturation curve is illustrated through an example, in which a single-phase low voltage transformer is modelled. This example shows the added value of a measurement-based modelling. An additional example illustrates measurement of the hysteresis curve of 350 MVA, 420/110 kV power transformers.

Dissolution and solubility of Pb-substituted calcite, Ca-substituted cerussite and their mixtures at 25 °C

A series of Pb-substituted calcite, Ca-substituted cerussite and their mixtures with the bulk solid Pb/(Ca + Pb) atom fractions (XPbCO3) of 0.00–1.00 were synthesized and their dissolution in water for one year was experimentally studied at 25 °C. During dissolution of the solids (XPbCO3 = 0.01–0.90) in the N2-degassed water and the air-saturated water, the aqueous Pb concentrations increased rapidly to 0.136–2.095 μmol/L in 1 h and 0.140–3.431 μmol/L in 1–6 h, which were followed by a slight decrease-increase fluctuation to a steady state of 0.235–0.961 μmol/L and 0.177–0.483 μmol/L after 300–360 d, respectively. During dissolution in the CO2-saturated water, the aqueous Pb concentrations increased quickly up to the peak value of 1.351–89.107 μmol/L in <12 h, and subsequently declined slowly to a steady state of 0.194–0.515 μmol/L after 300–360 d. The aqueous Pb/(Ca + Pb) molar ratios (XPb2+,aq) declined with time and were considerably lower than the solid XPbCO3. During dissolution in the N2-degassed water, the air-saturated water and the CO2-saturated water, the mean values of log IAP at the steady state (≈log Ksp) were calculated to be −8.55 ± 0.16 ∼ −8.54 ± 0.11, −8.35 ± 0.21 ∼ −8.35 ± 0.17 and − 8.34 ± 0.07 ∼ −8.31 ± 0.13 for calcite [CaCO3]; −13.07 ± 0.53 ∼ −12.97 ± 0.52, −13.23 ± 0.34 ∼ −13.11 ± 0.20 and − 13.56 ± 0.36 ∼ −13.29 ± 0.26 for cerussite [PbCO3], respectively. In terms of the bulk composition, the calcite-type crystals and the cerussite-type crystals, the log IAP values of the solids at the steady state declined almost linearly with the increasing XPbCO3. The highest XPbCO3 value in the calcite-type crystals and the lowest XPbCO3 value in the cerussite-type crystals were measured to be 0.226 and 0.648, respectively. Thereout, the Guggenheim parameters were estimated to be a0 = 0.405 and a1 = −1.49 for the calcite side, and a0 = 1.77 and a1 = −0.474 for the cerussite side of the calcite-cerussite solid solutions. In the Lippmann diagrams constructed for the Calcite–PbCO3 (R3¯c) system, the Aragonite–Cerussite (Pmcn) system and the Calcite–Cerussite system with the estimated Guggenheim coefficients, the solids dissolved non-stoichiometrically and moved gradually up to the quasi-equilibrium curve for the solids with lower XPbCO3, and then along this curve from right to left, approached and crossed the solutus curve and the saturation curve for calcite, and sequentially moved up along the quasi-equilibrium curve for the solids with higher XPbCO3. Finally, the considerably Pb-poor water was simultaneously in equilibrium with both the Pb-richer cerussite-type crystals and the Pb-poorer calcite-type crystals. The result can provide a deeper insight into the environmental and geochemical cycle of lead.

Dynamics of dust and meteoroids due to electromagnetic transport in the heliosphere

ABSTRACT Observations of dust in the Solar system have indicated the existence of structures at higher ecliptic latitudes, the origin of which is still an ongoing debate. In a previous study, we studied how the interplanetary magnetic field affects the orbital motion of charged dust particles that are moving in co-orbital motion with Jupiter. Our findings revealed that the Lorentz force causes oscillations in orbital inclinations that lead to electromagnetic transport of the dust particles to higher ecliptic latitudes. In this work, using numerical simulations, we investigate how this transportation depends on orbital lifetime, strength of the background magnetic field, planetary mass, and distance from the Sun. In addition, we study the dynamics also outside resonance. We present our findings using the saturation curve, which gives a relation between the maximum amplitude in inclination with respect to the particle size ranging from 1 to 501 $\mu$m. We further study the influence of the solar radiation pressure, the Poynting–Robertson, and the solar wind effects on the shape of the saturation curve and find that a stronger gravitational influence of the planet leads to a steeper curve, decreasing the strength of the electromagnetic transport. The radiative forces lead to a gradual dampening of the latitudinal oscillations of particles inside resonance, while they are unchanged for objects outside of resonance. We argue that the dynamics of dust and meteoroids in the Solar system can only be understood by including space weathering effects.

Experimental measurements and response analysis of resistivity of reservoirs with complex wettability: A case study of Yan’an Formation, Ordos Basin, China

Resistivity logs are commonly used to distinguish oil and water reservoirs. However, the complex hydrocarbon accumulation pattern in the study area leads to complex wettability, which significantly affects the resistivity as well as the density and neutron logs and causes difficulties in fluid-type identification. To understand the resistivity characteristics and accurately identify the fluid types, resistivity experiments of core samples selected by the density and neutron logs are performed. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is simultaneously measured to determine the rock wettability. Instead of the conventional “aged” method for restoring the original wettability, a new set of experimental procedures is developed for obtaining resistivity and NMR [Formula: see text] spectra of samples with wettability as close as possible to that of the original reservoir. Specifically, samples with and without oil washing are measured separately, and a simple correction method for the resistivity index is developed. Moreover, the difference in the water salinity of different wells is considered. The results find that the resistivity index of samples drilled from possible oil-wet reservoirs indicated by the “abnormal” density and neutron responses varied from 2.807 to 5.388, whereas that of possible water-wet reservoirs was less than 2.0. The [Formula: see text] spectra at different states confirm the wettability of the samples. The resistivity index versus saturation ([Formula: see text]–[Formula: see text]) curves of oil-wet rocks are nearly straight lines other than the theoretical concave lines in double-logarithmic coordinates. Oil washing changes the rock wettability to varying degrees. Furthermore, the resistivity log responses of the reservoirs are accurately interpreted using the experimental data. The resistivity is simultaneously affected by the salinity, wettability, and saturation. Finally, based on the factors affecting the reservoir resistivity, fluid identification plots are established for reservoirs with different wettabilities. The agreement rates of identification using the crossplots and oil test are greater than 90%.

Modeling bimodal capillary bundle two-phase flow in the shale matrix for predicting water saturation distribution

In gas field development, the distribution of water saturation is one of the most effective estimated two-phase flow law methods for the shale matrix. Water saturation has been widely studied; however, few studies exist to show that water saturation distribution is related to pore diameter distribution of shale matrix. Furthermore, based on experimental observations, imbibition and gas-driven water flow nuclear magnetic resonance experiments also show the phenomenon. Therefore, the objective of this work is to build a bimodal capillary bundle two-phase flow model to investigate the relation of water saturation with pore diameter distribution of shale matrix. Firstly, this work combines the bimodal pore size distribution with the truncated Gaussian distribution theory to present the shale matrix pore. Moreover, we develope a shale core imbibition model and a gas-driven water flow model to predict the distribution of the water saturation distribution during the two-phase flow, by using the gas-water two-phase seepage theory. Shale imbibition and gas-driven water flow experiments are carried out on shale samples from the underground Longmaxi Formation. The relative error of distribution curve of water saturation predicted by model and experiments has been calculated. At the initial stage of imbibition the shale matrix core is not completely dried model values do not match the measured values, but, the relative error is stable at 1–2% at the late stage of imbibition. The average relative error is 2.13% in gas-driven water flow process. As a result, the shale imbibition model and the displacement model can accurately characterize the two-phase (gas-water) flow process, providing a theoretical support to study the two-phase flow in the shale matrix.

Comparative effect of resveratrol, carnosic acid and hernandulcin on target enzymes and biochemical markers linked to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in mice

Resveratrol (RV), carnosic acid (CA) and hernandulcin (HE; a non-caloric sweetener) are envisioned as promising nutraceuticals to designnew functional foods for improving lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro inhibitory effectof these molecules on specific enzyme targets and their capacity to improve distinctive markers associated to carbohydrate and lipidmetabolism in murine model. The enzymes explored were alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, and pancreatic lipase whereas ICR malemice were used for in vivo testing. Saturation curves (10-200 µM mL-1) and Lineweaver-Burk regressions suggested that RV, CA andHE exerts non-competitive inhibition on pancreatic lipase, alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase but, CA produced a strong competitiveactivity on alpha-amylase. RV was more effective to inhibit alpha-glucosidase (IC50, 22.1 µM) whereas CA was the most effective toinhibit both alpha-amylase (IC50, 11.7 µM) and pancreatic lipase (IC50, 31.5 µM). The effects of the oral administration of RV (300 mg/kg) HE (100 mg/kg) and CA (100 mg/kg) as well as the simultaneous administration of the three compounds at the same concentration was also explored in normoglycemic and diabetic mice. In addition, the prolonged administration of these substances combined with hypercaloric/atherogenic diet for 30 days was performed. Our results revealed a clear modulatory activity in both postprandial glucose and triglyceride levels as well an improvement in biochemical markers of mice treated with hypercaloric/atherogenic diet. The administration of HE produced a notable change (p &lt; 0.01) in postprandial glucose assimilation at 60 min post-treatment in diabetic mice, whereas the other two compounds exerted a stronger depletion of glucose levels from 30 to 120 min post-treatment. A similar trend was recorded by RV and CA in postprandial triglyceride content, however, the latter compound was more effective (p &lt; 0.05) at lower doses than RV. The simultaneous administration of the three compounds produced a significant improvement (p &lt; 0.01) in biochemical parameters associated to carbohydrate (insulin and glucose) and lipid metabolism (total cholesterol, LDL-c, HDL-c, triglycerides, leptin, and adiponectin).Outstandingly, the mixture of the three compounds was more effective (p &lt; 0.01) than the administration of sole compounds to amelioratethe side effects of the hypercaloric/atherogenic diet. Finally, the body weight of treated mice significantly decreased (from 5 to 20%; p &lt; 0.05) in comparison with mice only fed with hypercaloric/atherogenic diet. Our results suggest that mixtures of RV, HE and CA may work better than their sole administration in mice and part of their biological activity could be associated with their inhibitory properties on the enzyme targets evaluated in this investigation.&#x0D; Keywords: Carnosic acid; Hernandulcin; Resveratrol; Hypoglycemic; Hypolipidemic; Murine model; Target enzymes

Wireless Acquisition for Resistivity Index in Centrifuge – WiRI: A Comparative Study of Three Pc-RI Methods

Technological improvements and innovations are made to offer solutions with superior efficiency in terms of cost, quality, speed, or all of them. In the special core analysis (SCAL) field, the conventional resistivity index measurement (the porous plate technique) is a cost-effective method that provides good-quality results but is very time consuming. For this purpose, several methods were developed to reduce the time taken to acquire resistivity measurements. In 2017, we proposed the ultra-fast capillary pressure and resistivity index measurements (UFPCRI) combining centrifugation, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, and resistivity profiling. Since 2021, the wireless resistivity index (WiRI) method allows the acquisition of capillary pressure and resistivity index in a matter of days. This method is based on a new in-house system to acquire wirelessly resistivity indexes along a rock sample during centrifugation. The determination of the resistivity vs. saturation curve and the n exponent of Archie’s law is done thanks to an optimization algorithm. In this paper, we present the results obtained from multiple simulations and experiments for WiRI, UFPCRI, and porous plate to discuss the advantages and drawbacks of each method in terms of reliability and experimental duration. Six rock samples are studied. A comparison of the three methods regarding Archie’s n exponent, resistivity indexes, and capillary pressure curves is performed.

Realistic geometric modeling of the dielectric constant and its effect on the discharge with a porous dielectric

Porous dielectric discharge (PDD) is a critical phenomenon in plasma catalysis, biomedical tissue surface functionalization, and all-solid-state battery design. The dielectric constant of porous dielectric (PD) significantly impacts discharge characteristics and breakdown mechanisms across different applications. However, the complex spatial structure of porous media presents challenges in diagnosing and simulating PDD, limiting our understanding of its mechanism. In this study, the real geometric model of PD obtained from x-ray computed tomography (X-Ray-μ CT) and a two-dimensional fluid model were used to simulate and analyze the effect of dielectric constant on PDD-plasma characteristics, especially the generation and disappearance of charged particles. The simulation results reveal the following: (1) At the breakdown moment, PDD is a density-unbalanced discharge where the electron density is two orders of magnitude higher than the ion density; (2) The breakdown discharge follows the most accessible channel instead of filling the entire gap, which is guided by the electron temperature gradient; and (3) It was first discovered that the breakdown voltage exhibits a saturated growth curve under the control of the dielectric constant. By combining these mechanisms, a comprehensive explanation has been provided for this phenomenon. This study offers a robust simulation and theoretical basis for understanding the breakdown characteristics of PDD.

Method of Calculation of a Road Tunnel Illumination

The study proposes a method of electrical lighting calculation for a road tunnel, which allows estimating locations of selected luminaires providing the required road surface luminance distribution in the areas of vehicle driver adaptation while driving through a tunnel during daytime. The method is based on the adopted concepts of saturation curve and luminance saturation zone which are used for building of a step curve approximating the set zonal distribution of luminance. The basic terms of the method and the calculation algorithm as well as an example of calculation of luminaire locations in the tunnel luminance zones illustrated by comparison of estimated and pre-set luminance distributions are presented.

Sulfur-Containing Persistent Free Radicals and Reactive Species on Photoaged Microplastics: Identification and the Formation Mechanism.

The elemental composition may affect the persistent free radical (PFR) and reactive species (RS) formation associated with photoaging microplastics; however, a relevant study is still lacking. This study systematically investigated the formation, evolution, and types of PFRs and RS on sulfur-containing microplastics (S-MPs) under simulated sunlight. Electron paramagnetic resonance detection and power saturation curve analysis isolated three different PFRs on each photoaging poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) and polysulfone (PSF). Combining the results of characterization and density functional theory calculation, these observed PFRs on the irradiated S-MPs were classified as oxygen-centered radicals with an adjacent S atom (namely, thio-oxygen radicals), oxygen-centered and sulfur-centered radicals, where the thio-oxygen radicals on PPS were benzenethiol-like radicals, and oxygen-centered radicals and sulfur-centered radicals on PSF that were identified as benzenesulfonic-like radicals and phenyl sulfonyl-like radicals, respectively. Moreover, potential precursor molecule fragments of PFRs on the photoaging S-MPs, including p-toluenesulfinic acid and benzenesulfonic acid, were detected by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Interestingly, reactive sulfur species (SO3•-) was also observed on irradiated S-MPs in addition to reactive oxygen species, which was mainly derived from the reaction of •OH and sulfonyl radicals. These results have implications for assessing the potential risks of atmospheric S-MPs.

Conceptual Model of Expansive Rock or Soil Swelling

The paper presents a simple yet efficient way to track the void ratio, the water content, and the degree of saturation of a swelling material during saturation. The research aimed to quantitatively describe the drying and wetting processes of the swelling material, which should enable their better understanding and easier modelling. Two identical tall samples, named “twins”, were formed by consolidating the paste prepared from the swelling material in which montmorillonite is the dominant mineral. The twins were together exposed to one-dimensional drying. After drying, lasting for 40 days, one twin was dissected to determine its water content profile. The other twin was subjected to 1D wetting (ponded infiltration experiment) with a constant water column for a period of 21 days and then dissected to determine the moisture profile. The sample preparation reduces uncertainties about the initial state. The results show that during wetting, the material follows a path in the e-w plot which is parallel to the full saturation curve. After reaching some degree of saturation, the path becomes parallel to the residual (shrinking) line. The proposed model predicts the primary and secondary phases of swelling, and under appropriate conditions, it assumes the tertiary phase.

Thermal stability of linear siloxanes and their mixtures

The working fluid thermal stability is one of the crucial features of an effective organic Rankine cycle. Hexamethyldisiloxane (MM - C6H18OSi2) and octamethyltrisiloxane (MDM - C8H24O2Si3) are siloxane fluids currently exploited in high temperature organic Rankine cycles. However, data about their thermal stability are scarce or absent in literature. This manuscript presents a study of their behavior and decomposition at operating temperatures in the range 270–420°C.The assessment of thermal stability can be performed with several methods, which are either based on pressure anomalous variation in isothermal stresses or on the deviation of the saturation curves experimentally obtained before and after the fluid is thermally stressed. An enhanced method is proposed here, based on chemical analysis of both vapor and liquid phases of the sample before and after it is subjected to thermal stress. A comparison of the pre- and post-stress vapor–liquid equilibrium curve complements the analysis.Results proved a higher stability for MM than for MDM. Moreover, due to the current interest in applying mixtures in organic Rankine cycles, an equimolar mixture of MM and MDM was also tested, which exhibit a behavior that appears to be different from the simple superimposition of pure fluid ones.

Assessing water affinity properties of biodiesel, diesel fuel, and blends by measuring water saturation and water absorption

Biodiesel has many advantages and technical aspects of being blended in any proportion with diesel fuel to support diversification energy policy. However, biodiesel absorbs more moisture than diesel fuel since methyl esters are hygroscopic compounds, and there is a limited amount of published information about water affinity properties. Water content can affect the fuel’s characteristics, reducing fuel quality if it accumulates into free, emulsion, or soluble water. This paper reports the water affinity properties of biodiesel, diesel fuel, and their blends through water saturation. It indicates a maximum water content value that the fuel can retain at a specific temperature and moisture absorption by controlled temperature and humidity. The results show that the pristine biodiesel has a water saturation range of (1366 to 1771) mg.kg-1 in the temperature range of (288.15 to 313.15) K. Therefore, diesel fuel has a maximum water saturation of 255 mg.kg-1 at a temperature of 313.15 K. The water saturation curve shows that biodiesel-diesel blends have a water saturation with a slope range of (12.20 to 15.11) mg.kg-1 water per 1%-vol biodiesel in diesel fuel blend in the temperature range (288.15 to 303.15) K. During eight days of observation on eight commercial biodiesels, the moisture absorption value was 1094 mg.kg-1 at a temperature of 298.15 K with a relative humidity of 90 %. It was also found that high moisture quickly affects the water content point in the storage period.

Observing strongly confined multiexcitons in bulk-like CsPbBr3 nanocrystals.

We monitor the time-resolved photoluminescence (t-PL) from CsPbBr3 perovskite nanocrystals with a time resolution of 3ps, which is fast enough to resolve emission from potential multiexcitonic states. Being 15nm in length and twice the Bohr length, these nanocrystals are either weakly confined or bulk-like. In contrast to this expectation of weak confinement, emission from multiexcitons is observed with binding energies consistent with strongly confined quantum dots. In addition to emission from biexcitons, emission from triexcitons is observed. The triexciton emission includes both S and P recombination channels. Excitation with different amounts of excess energy yields the same PL spectral dynamics, indicating that there are no hot carrier effects, and the electronic structure of the absorbing states is the same. The kinetics of the multiexciton populations are presented in two ways. The kinetics are first shown in a spectrally integrated form, showing faster t-PL at higher fluences independent of excitation excess energy. Both excess energies show the same saturation response. In the second way of presenting the kinetics, the multiexciton populations are decomposed and presented as transients and saturation curves. These decomposed spectra into exciton, biexciton, and triexciton populations enable further insight into their kinetics and fluence dependence.

More of the same? Voxelotor spawns a successor, but on what success does it build?

More of the same? Voxelotor spawns a successor, but on what success does it build?

Measurement and modelling of dynamic fluid saturation in carbon reinforcements

We propose a methodology to monitor the progressive saturation of a non-translucent unidirectional carbon fabric stack through its thickness by means of X-ray radiography and extract the dynamic saturation curves using image analysis. Four constant flow rate injections with increasing flow speed were carried out. These were simulated by a numerical two-phase flow model for both capillary and viscous leading flow conditions. The hydraulic functions describing pressure and relative permeability versus saturation were determined by fitting the saturation curves using a heuristic optimization routine. As the fluid velocity increases and the flow regime at the flow front shifts from capillary to hydrodynamically driven, the resulting capillary pressure curves for a given saturation level are shifted to higher values, from negative to positive. These as well as the capillary pressure calculated from the pressure drop within the unsaturated region of the fabric correlate well with a corresponding change in the averaged dynamic contact angle.

Numerical simulation of ideal and non-ideal under-expanded supersonic jets with adaptive grids

This paper numerically investigates the effect of flow non-ideality on the Mach disk pattern occurring in axisymmetric under-expanded supersonic jets. The explored conditions are found in the non-ideal gas region close to the liquid–vapor saturation curve and the critical point, where involved thermodynamics cannot be accurately described by the ideal gas law. Numerical simulations of steady inviscid compressible flows are carried out by adopting the polytropic ideal gas model and improved Peng–Robinson thermodynamic model, via the open-source computational fluid dynamics code SU2. To properly resolve the Mach disk position and radius, a mesh adaptation procedure is used. An assessment of the most suitable mesh adaptation criteria for the considered ideal and non-ideal flow configurations is carried out, considering isotropic and anisotropic mesh adaptation criteria. The best mesh adaptation criterion for ideal and non-ideal under-expanded jets results to be the anisotropic criterion based on the Hessian of the density and Mach number field. Then, the effects of the flow non-ideality on the Mach disk are investigated by simulating different operating conditions of under-expanded nozzle jets of five different vapors. For nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, the Mach disk moves downstream and has a smaller radius with a higher level of non-ideality. Conversely, for siloxanes MM and MDM, the Mach disk moves upstream and has a larger radius as the non-ideality of the flows increases.

Peroxidase-Mimicking Hierarchically Organized Gold Particles for Glucose Detection.

In this work, we synthesize a series of hierarchically organized gold nanoparticles (Au HOPs-X) with peroxidase (POD)-like catalytic activity by the in situ reduction of Au-thiolate hierarchically organized particles (Au HOPs). The initial Au HOPs show little POD-like catalytic activity. However, after the reduction of the particles, the Au HOPs-X showed enhanced POD-like catalytic activity, where X represents the reduction degree of Au HOPs. The reasons are as follows: (1) the Au-thiolate complexes on the surface of the Au HOPs-X were reduced into Au nanoparticles, and the active Au0 content increases with the increase of the reduction degree; (2) the specific surface area of Au HOPs-X becomes larger. Based on this, the Au HOPs-10 with the highest catalytic activity were combined with glucose oxidase to obtain a standard curve as a function of glucose concentrations. The color of the solutions was captured by mobile phone photos to determine their saturation, and the rapid detection of glucose was achieved through the standard curve of glucose concentration and saturation determined in this study.

Three-dimensional pore structure characteristics of granite residual soil and their relationship with hydraulic properties under different particle gradation by X-ray computed tomography

The pore structure characteristics and hydraulic properties, including saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil water retention curve (SWRC), for granite residual soil under different particle gradation were carried out by high-resolution X-ray computed tomography (CT) and pressure plate. The relationship between three-dimensional pore structure characteristics and hydraulic properties were quantitatively analyzed. The results show that the decrease of the average pore/throat radius and the CT-connected porosity with the particle diameter decreases, but the fractal dimension value increases, indicating that the soil pore structure became complex. The effect on hydraulic properties is the comprehensive effect of soil properties and soil structure. Adding big particles improved the saturated hydraulic conductivity by increasing the soil pore connectivity and decreasing the fractal dimension. In addition, the micropore spatial variation and complex pore structure help to increase the water retention capacity.

Multiple In-Mold Sensors for Quality and Process Control in Injection Molding.

The simultaneous improvement of injection molding process efficiency and product quality, as required by Industry 4.0, is a complex, non-trivial task that requires a comprehensive approach, which involves a combination of sensoring and information techniques. In this study, we investigated the suitability of in-mold pressure sensors to control the injection molding process in multi-cavity molds. We have conducted several experiments to show how to optimize the clamping force, switchover, or holding time by measuring only pressure in a multi-cavity mold. The results show that the pressure curves and the pressure integral are suitable for determining optimal clamping force. We also proved that in-channel sensors could be effectively used for a pressure-controlled SWOP. In the volume-controlled method, only the sensors in the cavity were capable of correctly detecting the end of the filling. We proposed a method to optimize the holding phase. In this method, we first determined the integration time of the area under the pressure curve and then performed a model fit using the relationship between the pressure integral and product mass. The saturation curve fitted to the pressure data can easily determine the gate freeze-off time from pressure measurements.