Saturated Water Vapor Research Articles

Original concept of cracked template with controlled peeling of the cells perimeter for high performance transparent EMI shielding films

The problem of sputtering of thick metal films on micro and nanotemplates is important for obtaining mesh transparent conductors with excellent optoelectric characteristics. In this work, we demonstrate for the first time the possibility of controlling the degree of peeling of the cell perimeter from the substrate for a cracked template based on egg white by alternating the operations of moistening the template with saturated water vapor and shock drying with hot air. Local peeling of the cracked template cells perimeter makes it possible to increase the thickness of the metal sputtered on the cracked template by more than 1 µm, which is not achievable for other lithographic approaches. Our technique was used to obtain thick Ag meshes with a low sheet resistance of no more than 1.59 Ω/sq and a transparency of about 89.1%. The thick Ag meshes show a shielding efficiency (SE) of 49 dB or 99.998% of the incident power of an electromagnetic wave at a frequency of 1 GHz. In a sandwich geometry, thick Ag meshes, which simulates a real shielding window, the shielding efficiency (SE) reaches 71 dB with a transparency of more than 80%.

Zmiany wilgotności powietrza w Łodzi w latach 1966–2020 w świetle wybranych wskaźników

The aim of the study is to present changes in air humidity in central Poland in the years 1966–2000 in Łódź as an example. The values of air temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure from four observation terms, 00, 06, 12 and 18 UTC, were used. On this basis, the saturated vapour pressure, the current vapour pressure, and the saturation deficit were calculated. Then, the variability of these three indicators and relative humidity was examined. The variability of monthly and seasonal average values of humidity indices in four observation periods was presented, the trends in seasonal variability of humidity indices were calculated and the distribution functions of their distributions were compared in the midday period in three 15-year periods: 1966–1980, 1986–2000 and 2006–2020. It has been shown that the pressure of saturated water vapour is the highest in summer, the lowest in winter, and slightly higher in spring than in autumn at all times, except for the night. It increased significantly in the studied period as a result of the increase in air temperature. A comparison of the distributions in three 15-year periods shows a significant increase in the probability of occurrence of high values of saturation vapour pressure, even above 30hPa. The water vapour pressure in the air is highest in summer and lowest in winter, but in spring it is lower than in autumn. All trend coefficients are positive, but only less than half are statistically significant. A comparison of the distributions over three 15-year periods show a slight increase in the probability of higher values of the actual vapour pressure. The saturation deficit, as the difference between the previous two indicators, increases significantly. Its value in spring is significantly higher than in autumn. The trend is positive, especially in spring and summer, and the comparison of distributions shows that in the last 15 years the probability of high values of saturation deficit increased significantly. The course of relative humidity is the opposite of saturation deficit. In autumn, the relative humidity is definitely higher than in spring. The trend is down. To sum up, warming brings an increase in the capacity of the atmosphere for water vapour, a slight increase in the amount of water vapour in the air, but also a significant increase in saturation deficit and a decrease in relative humidity, which is particularly strong in spring in the first half of the growing season.

Zirconia-supported all-silica zeolite CHA membrane with unprecedentedly high selectivity in humidified CO2/CH4 mixture

Continuous and thin all-silica zeolite CHA membranes were prepared successfully on the tubular zirconia/alumina supports by a novel fluoride-free synthesis approach using lithium hydroxide as mineralizer. Membrane synthesis using the uniform and low-viscosity gel displayed good reproductivity. The influences of pressure and temperature on separation data of the membrane in the dry and wet mixtures were comprehensively investigated. The typical membrane had CO2/CH4 and CO2/N2 selectivities of 170 and 33 and carbon dioxide permeances of 950 × 10−9 and 1200 × 10−9 mol/(m2 s Pa) [∼3600 GPU, Gas Permeation Unit: 1GPU = 3.348 × 10−10 mol/(m2 s Pa)] at 298 K in dry CO2/CH4 and CO2/N2 (50/50 in mol) mixtures, respectively. The unprecedentedly high CO2/CH4 selectivity of 430 was obtained for the zeolite membrane at 298 K in wet CO2/CH4 mixture with saturated water vapor. The long-term stability of this membrane was also investigated in humidified mixture with relative humidity of close to 100%. The possible water-gated molecular sieve mechanism in the presence of moisture was proposed.

Case II diffusion of water in Na2O–3SiO2 glass: Constant tensile stress gradient at the diffusion interface

AbstractSome polymers and oxide glasses exhibit unusual diffusion of liquid or gas, with the depth of diffusion exhibiting a linear increase with time, instead of normal square root of time dependence. There have been many models, but very few experimental data that can help clarify the cause of the phenomenon's existence in glass. Residual stress in sodium trisilicate glass (Na2O–3SiO2) samples was characterized following Case II water diffusion at 80°C in a saturated water vapor environment. The surface‐swelled layer of the glass was removed by dissolving it in water, and birefringence of the newly revealed surface layer was measured. The presence of a constant negative tensile stress gradient was revealed by indicating that Case II diffusion in sodium trisilicate glass originates from this stress gradient, which overwhelms the more typical Fick's law concentration‐dependent flux.

A Two‐Martian Years Survey of the Water Vapor Saturation State on Mars Based on ACS NIR/TGO Occultations

AbstractOn Mars, condensation is the major factor constraining the vertical distribution of water vapor. Recent measurements of water and temperature profiles showed that water can be strongly supersaturated at and above the level where clouds form during the aphelion and perihelion seasons. Since 2018, the near‐infrared spectrometer (NIR) of the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite onboard the Trace Gas Orbiter has measured H2O and temperature profiles using solar occultation in the infrared from below 10 to 100 km of altitude. Here, we provide the first long‐term monitoring of the water saturation state. The survey spans 2 Martian years from Ls = 163° of MY34 to Ls = 170° of MY36. We found that water is often supersaturated above aerosol layers. In the aphelion season, the water mixing ratio above 40 km in the mid‐to‐high latitudes was below 3 ppmv and yet is found to be supersaturated. Around the perihelion, water is also supersaturated above 60 km with a mixing ratio of 30–50 ppmv. Stronger saturation is observed during the dusty season in MY35 compared to what was observed in MY34 during the Global Dust Storm and around the perihelion. Saturation varied between the evening and morning terminators in response to temperature modulation imparted by thermal tides. Although water vapor is more abundant in the evening, colder morning temperatures induce a daily peak of saturation. This data set establishes a new paradigm for water vapor on Mars, revealing that supersaturation is nearly ubiquitous, particularly during the dust season, thereby promoting water escape on an annual average.

Dependence of the thermophysical properties of alloys of the Fe - Cr - Al - Si system on the composition and temperature

Pressurized water reactors (PWR, VVER, EPR, CAP) are currently the backbone of the world's nuclear power industry. The fuel in this type of power plants is uranium dioxide pellets enclosed in a sealed zirconium shell. Loss Of Coolant Accident (LOCA) emergencies can cause partial or complete destruction of zirconium claddings and accumulation of hydrogen in the reactor pressure vessel and reactor building. This is due to the so-called steam-zirconium reaction: an exothermic process of zirconium oxidation in an atmosphere of saturated water vapor at temperatures above 900 °C. The products of this reaction are hydrogen and brittle zirconium oxide, which collapses under the action of its own weight and the weight of the fuel column. Fuel for pressurized water nuclear power reactors that is resistant to a loss of coolant accident is the subject of research around the world. One of the ways of implementation is the use of alloys of the Fe – Cr – Al system as a fuel element cladding material, since they have high corrosion resistance in water. The work is devoted to the determination of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE), specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and the influence of composition on them for Fe – Cr – Al – Si alloys in the temperature range of 200–1000 °C. New data on the dependence of the thermophysical characteristics of alloys of the Fe – Cr – Al – Si system on temperature and chromium concentration have been obtained. It is shown that the CLTE, specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity weakly depend on the chromium content in the studied concentration range, the main contribution of alloying elements is made by the position of the Curie.

A reaction mechanism for plasma electrolysis of AgNO3 forming silver nanoclusters and nanoparticles

In plasma-driven solution electrolysis (PDSE), gas-phase plasma-produced species interact with an electrolytic solution to produce, for example, nanoparticles. An atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) directed onto a liquid solution containing a metallic salt will promote reduction of metallic ions in solution, generating metallic clusters that nucleate to form nanoparticles. In this article, results from a computational investigation are discussed of a PDSE process in which a radio-frequency APPJ sustained in helium impinges on a silver nitrate solution, resulting in growth of silver nanoparticles. A reaction mechanism was developed and implemented in a global plasma chemistry model to predict nanoparticle growth. To develop the reaction mechanism, density functional theory was used to generate probable silver growth pathways up to Ag9. Neutral clusters larger than Ag9 were classified as nanoparticles. Kinetic reaction rate coefficients for thermodynamically favorable growth pathways were estimated based on an existing, empirically determined base reaction mechanism for smaller Ag particle interactions. These rates were used in conjunction with diffusion-controlled reaction rate coefficients that were calculated for other Ag species. The role of anions in reduction of Agn ions in forming nanoparticles is also discussed. Oxygen containing impurities or admixtures to the helium, air entrainment into the APPJ, and dissociation of saturated water vapor above the solution can produce additional reactive oxygen species in solution, resulting in the production of anions and O2− in particular. For a given molarity, delivering a sufficient fluence of reducing species will produce similar nanoparticle densities and sizes for all applied power levels. Comparisons are made to alternate models for nanoparticle formation, including charged nanoparticles and use of direct current plasmas.

Single Crystal to Single Crystal Transformation of CuII Complexes Induced by Dehydrating and Hydrating of Ligands with Chroma Rewritable Behaviors.

In this work, the single crystal to single crystal (SCSC) transformations in three mononuclear copper complexes [CuL22]Cl2·2H2O (1), [CuL12Cl2] (2), and [CuL22]Cl2·4H2O (3) (L1 = di-2-pyridyl ketone, L2 = di(pyridin-2-yl)methanediol) are realized by the irreversible dehydration and hydration reaction of L1 and L2. Dark purple crystal 1 is obtained by self-assembly of L1 and CuCl2·2H2O in solvothermal reactions, in which the carbonyl group of L1 undergoes a hydration addition reaction to form L2. On heating, 1 transforms to 2 by dehydrating water accompanied by the change of the color and coordination octahedron of CuII ions. In a saturated water vapor environment, 2 can absorb six water molecules and transform to 3 with the same color and coordination environment with 1 but different lattice water. The SCSC process from 2 to 3 is reversible: 3 can transform back to 2 on heating like that of 1. Chroma rewritable behaviors in the structural transformation of the complexes make them visually identifiable temperature or water probes.

Isotopic effect on the hydration-dehydration studies of βbc-nickel hydroxide using infrared spectroscopy

β and βbc-nickel hydroxides are the two polymorphs obtained by simple precipitation method. βbc-nickel hydroxide contains water of hydration bonded to the layers of [Ni(OH)6] octahedron by chemisorption process. OH¯ due to [Ni(OH)6] octahedron from the layer and water of hydration is of two types of OH¯ groups present in the bc-nickel hydroxide sample. The water of hydration is reversible in nature and can be dehydrated and hydrated at about 125oC and is treated as reversible moisture content. Using IR spectroscopic technique, the two types of hydroxyl stretching vibrational frequencies can be easily identified. In this study, isotopic exchange (D2O) of reversible moisture content (H2O) in βbc-nickel hydroxide has been carried out. βbc-nickel hydroxide sample was heated to about 1250C and on exposure to deuterium water vapours for overnight results in the changes in the vibrational bands of the infrared spectrum. βbc-nickel hydroxide saturated with deuterated water was re-heated to eliminate it and re-equilibrated in saturated water (H2O) vapour. Variation in the relative intensities, appearance and disappearance of bands in the IR spectra during the heating and cooling process was monitored.

High Resolution Observation of Liquid Water in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Using X-Ray Nano Computed Tomography

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) are attracting attention as energy device of low environmental impact because of their high generation efficiency and their emitting only water. The gas supplied to the PEFC is humidified, and water is produced at the cathode catalytic layer by the electrochemical reaction between oxygen and protons. The gas diffusion layer (GDL) and micro porous layer (MPL) in PEFC plays an important role in the transport of oxygen and water. When liquid water accumulates in the GDL, the supply of oxygen to the cathode is inhibited, resulting in poor generation performance. In order to maintain the performance of PEFCs, it is important to manage the water in the cell.Attempts have been made to visualize the liquid water in GDLs and MPLs for better GDL and MPL design; X-ray micro computed tomography (micro-CT) is one powerful tool for this. Visualization of liquid water in GDLs and MPLs using micro-CT has so far revealed the behavior of the produced water[1,2]. However, in previous studies, it has been difficult to visualize liquid water in the catalyst layer, which is the reaction field where the water is produced. This is because the spatial resolution of micro-CT is larger than a µm, which is insufficient for analyzing liquid water in the catalytic layer. X-ray CT measurements with a resolution of at least 150 nm are needed to measure the distribution of liquid water in the cross section of the catalyst layer. In this study, a measurement system to reveal the distribution of liquid water in the catalyst layer was developed using a 150 nm-spatial-resolution X-ray CT with a synchrotron radiation x-ray microscope called X-ray nano-CT.A GDL specimen prepared cut to a disk shape with 1 mm diameter. The GDL specimen mounted on a copper stage with high thermal conductivity connected Peltier element module. The micro-CT and nano-CT measurements were carried out in BL20XU beamline at SPring-8, Japan. An X-ray beam energy was 30 keV with a double crystal monochromator. The nano-CT measurements were performed using Zernike phase contrast with voxel size of 38.4 nm. We measured the micro-CT and nano-CT of the dry condition of the GDL specimen. Then, the GDL specimen injected liquid water was scanned. Injection of liquid water into the GDL specimen is not easy because of water-repellent of GDLs. Helium gas saturated water vapor at 40 °C was sprayed to the GDL at 30 ml/min, then the GDL cooled to 10 °C using a Peltier element module and the vapor was condensed inside of the GDL. The measurement setup is shown in Figure 1. This water injection in GDL method was based on the method reported by Kato et al [2].Figure 2 shows the optical system of the nano-CT used in this study. The optical system of this nano-CT provides a condenser zone plate for sample illumination, a Fresnel zone plate for enlarged image, and phase ring for Zernike phase contrast. These optics allow CT with a high spatial resolution of 150 nm to be measured even for materials with low X-ray absorption.A three-dimensional structure of GDL was revealed by CT measurements in each scale order. The distribution of liquid water in GDL were visualized with nanoscale spatial resolution (Figure 3). We have successfully visualized the three-dimension distribution of liquid water in the GDL with nm order scale using nano-CT. The newly established nano-CT with a spatial resolution of 150 nm order is extremely useful for elucidating liquid-water behavior in PEFCs containing catalyst layers, which was not clear before. Acknowledgements This work is based on results obtained from a NEDO FC-Platform project commissioned by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO). This study was partially supported by the Synchrotron radiation experiments performed at BL20XU of SPring-8 with the approval of the Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute (JASRI) (Proposal numbers 2021A2009, 2021B1015).

Experimental study of apatite-fluid interaction and partitioning of rare earth elements at 150 and 250 °C

Abstract Apatite is a common accessory phase in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Its stability in magmatichydrothermal and hydrothermal systems is known to be a key control on the mobility of rare earth elements (REE). To better constrain how apatite is altered during fluid-rock interaction at comparably low temperatures, batch-type apatite dissolution experiments were conducted at 150 and 250 °C at saturated water vapor pressure in acidic to mildly acidic (pH of 2–4) aqueous fluids having variable salinities (0, 0.5, and 5 wt% NaCl). The study reveals the dominance of apatite dissolution textures with the formation of micrometer-scale etch pits and dissolution channels developing prominently along the c-axis of the apatite crystals. Backscattered electron imaging shows an increase in apatite dissolution with increasing temperature and upon reacting the crystals with more acidic and higher salinity starting fluids. This study also demonstrates an increase in dissolved REE in the experimental fluids corroborating with the observed apatite dissolution behavior. Backscattered electron imaging of secondary minerals formed during apatite dissolution and scanning electron microscopy-based energy dispersive spectrometry peaks for Ca, P, and REE support the formation of monazite-(Ce) and minor secondary apatite as deduced from fluid chemistry (i.e., dissolved P and REE concentrations). The studied apatite reaction textures and chemistry of the reacted fluids both indicate that the mobility of REE is controlled by the dissolution of apatite coupled with precipitation of monazite-(Ce), which are enhanced by the addition of NaCl in the starting fluids. This coupled process can be traced by comparing the REE to P ratios in the reacted fluids with the stoichiometry of the unreacted apatite crystals. Apatite metasomatized at temperatures <300 °C is therefore controlled by dissolution rather than dissolution-reprecipitation reactions commonly observed in previous experiments conducted above 300 °C. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the presence of NaCl plays a crucial role in increasing the solubility of apatite, which controls the availability of REE to form secondary phosphates even in mildly acidic aqueous fluids. This implies that both the effects of acidity/alkalinity of the fluids and the role of dissolved alkalis (NaCl and KCl), need to be considered for understanding the controls on REE in magmatic-hydrothermal systems. Lastly, the experiments of this study expand the known conditions at which apatite is susceptible to be overprinted by hydrothermal alteration from 900 °C down to 150 °C and highlights the necessity of appropriately screening apatite grains using backscattered electron and cathodoluminescence imaging for signs of hydrothermal alteration textures in igneous apatite.

INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON THE SHORT-RANGE ORDERING OF CROSSLINKED GLYCOPOLYMERS BASED ON PLANT POLYSACCHARIDE KONJAC GLUCOMANNAN

Using X-ray diffraction data the short-range ordering was analyzed of the plant polysaccharide konjac glucomannan (KGM) and glycopolymers of different composition based on KGM and ε-caprolactam blocked isocyanates in the presence of saturated water vapor both for moistened and dried systems. The decrease in the values of the Breg’s period corresponding to the average distances between atoms and atomic groups in saturated water vapor is shown for glycopolymers placed under normal conditions. It was found that when the crosslinked KGM based glycopolymers are moistened, a secondary maximum is observed on the diffractograms, which corresponds to the ordering of the polysaccharide chains in the transverse direction. This secondary maximum was observed on the diffractograms of uncrosslinked KGM, but was absent on the initial diffractograms of crosslinked samples. This secondary maximum does not appear again on the diffractograms of dried glycopolymer samples. The influence of moisturizing-drying processes on the structuring and moisture content in polysaccharide and glycopolymers is analyzed. The results of WAXS correlate with thermogravimetry data on changes in the ability of KGM and KGM-based glicopolymers to retain moisture in humidified and dried systems. Using a nitroxyl paramagnetic probe, it has been demonstrated that the increase in molecular mobility of glycomolymers based on konjac glucomannan under the influence of low molecular weight plasticizer does not depend on isocyanate used. This effect allows correlating the irreversible effect of swelling and subsequent drying on the characteristics of these KGM-based systems with the achievement of macrochains of the polymer more equilibrium conformations due to increasing molecular mobility in the presence of moisture.

Insight into differentiation in alkalic systems: Nephelinite-carbonate-water experiments aimed at Ol Doinyo Lengai carbonatite genesis

Ol Doinyo Lengai (ODL, Tanzania, East African Rift) is the only known volcano currently erupting carbonatite on Earth with 30 yr. cycles alternating between quiescent carbonatite effusion and explosive, compositionally-zoned silicate eruptions. We performed isothermal crystallization and thermal gradient experiments involving ODL nephelinite, Na2CO3 and H2O to understand magmatic differentiation in this system using SEM-EDS x-ray analysis, x-ray tomography, SIMS and LA-ICPMS to characterize samples. Isothermal crystallization experiments document that hydrous liquids coexist with nepheline+feldspar; as peralkalinity increases, temperatures decrease. Presence of Na2CO3 increases the solubility of water in the liquid. Experiments placing nephelinite with H2O+ Na2CO3 in a 1,000–350°C thermal gradient show that rapid reaction occurs, resulting in virtually melt-free mineral aggregates having mineral layering reflecting systematic differentiation throughout the capsule. Both types of experiments argue that a continuous interconnected melt exists over a large temperature range in alkalic magmatic systems allowing for differentiation in a reactive mush zone process. Liquid compositions change from carbonate-water bearing nephelinites at high temperature down to hydrous carbonate silicate liquids at <400°C. We propose a model for ODL eruption behavior: 1) nephelinite magmas pond and build a sill complex downward with time; 2) hydrous carbonate melts form in the mush and buoyantly rise, ultimately erupting as natrocarbonatites observed; 3) H2O contents build up in melt at the bottom of the sill complex, eventually leading to water vapor saturation and explosive silicate eruptions. The model accounts for eruption cycling and the unusual compositional zoning of ODL silicate tephras.

Analysis and Experimental Study on Water Vapor Partial Pressure in the Membrane Distillation Process.

In membrane distillation, the vapor pressure difference is the driving force of mass transfer. The vapor pressure is generally assumed by the saturation pressure and calculated by the Antoine equation. However, in the actual operation process, the feed solutions usually flow in a non-equilibrium state, which does not meet the theoretical and measurement conditions of the vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) state. This study tested the actual water vapor pressure of the pure water, lithium bromide (LiBr) solution, lithium chloride (LiCl) solution, and calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution under different flow conditions. The results showed that the actual water vapor pressure was lower than the saturation pressure overall, and the difference increased with temperature but decreased with the mass concentration. Therefore, in vacuum membrane distillation (VMD), air gap membrane distillation (AGMD), and sweeping gas membrane distillation (SGMD), the membrane flux calculated by water vapor saturation pressure was higher than the actual membrane flux, and the relative difference decreased and was less than 10% after 60 °C. In direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD), the water vapor pressure difference on both membrane sides was almost the same by using the saturation vapor pressure or the tested data since the pressure errors were partially offset in parallel flow or counter-flow modes.

Humidity gradients in the air spaces of leaves.

Stomata are orifices that connect the drier atmosphere with the interconnected network of more humid air spaces that surround the cells within a leaf. Accurate values of the humidities inside the substomatal cavity, wi, and in the air, wa, are needed to estimate stomatal conductance and the CO2 concentration in the internal air spaces of leaves. Both are vital factors in the understanding of plant physiology and climate, ecological and crop systems. However, there is no easy way to measure wi directly. Out of necessity, wi has been taken as the saturation water vapour concentration at leaf temperature, wsat, and applied to the whole leaf intercellular air spaces. We explored the occurrence of unsaturation by examining gas exchange of leaves exposed to various magnitudes of wsat - wa, or Δw, using a double-sided, clamp-on chamber, and estimated degrees of unsaturation from the gradient of CO2 across the leaf that was required to sustain the rate of CO2 assimilation through the upper surface. The relative humidity in the substomatal cavities dropped to about 97% under mild Δw and as dry as around 80% when Δw was large. Measurements of the diffusion of noble gases across the leaf indicated that there were still regions of near 100% humidity distal from the stomatal pores. We suggest that as Δw increases, the saturation edge retreats into the intercellular air spaces, accompanied by the progressive closure of mesophyll aquaporins to maintain the cytosolic water potential.

Two states of liquid water with a qualitative difference in behavior of saturated vapor pressure

A new analysis method of the liquid water state based on testing of saturated water vapor extracted from the surface of the liquid phase is proposed. The method uses transport properties of water vapor flow when water vapor passes through a vacuum valve. The method allows you to divide the states of liquid water samples into rest or restless ones. Restless water is obtained from rest water by mechanical influence on it, for example, vibration or mixing. The return time of restless water to a rest state was estimated based on experimental data.

Determination of atmospheric column condensate using active and passive remote sensing technology

Abstract. To further exploit atmospheric cloud water resources (CWRs), it is necessary to correctly evaluate the number of CWRs in an area. The CWRs are hydrometeors that have not participated in precipitation formation at the surface and are suspended in the atmosphere to be exploited and maximise possible precipitation in the atmosphere (Zhou et al., 2020). Three items are included in CWRs: the existing hydrometeors at a certain time, the influx of atmospheric hydrometeors along the boundaries of the study area, and the mass of hydrometeors converted from water vapour through condensation or desublimation, defined as condensate. Condensate constitutes the most important part of CWRs. At present, there is a lack of effective observation methods for atmospheric column condensate evaluation, and direct observation data of CWRs are thus insufficient. A detection method for atmospheric column condensate is proposed and presented. The formation of condensate is closely related to atmospheric meteorological parameters (e.g. temperature and vertical airflow velocity). The amount of atmospheric column condensate can be calculated by the saturated water vapour density and the ascending velocity at the cloud base and top. Active and passive remote sensing technologies are applied to detect the mass of atmospheric column condensate. Combining millimetre cloud radar, lidar and microwave radiometers can suitably observe the vertical velocity and temperature at the cloud boundary. The saturated vapour density can be derived from the temperature, and then, water vapour flux and the maximum possible condensate can be deduced. A detailed detection scheme and data calculation method are presented, and the presented method can realise the determination of atmospheric column condensate. A case of cloud layer change before precipitation is considered, and atmospheric column condensate is deduced and obtained. This is the first application, to our knowledge, of observations for atmospheric column condensate evaluation, which is significant for research on the hydrologic cycle and the assessment of CWRs.

Mathematical model for computer simulation for selection of the order for the layers from the wall of industrial coolers

A mathematical model and computer software was developed for calculating the thickness of the insulation layers (panels) from the walls of the industrial coolers based on the order of their installation. A numerical example is given that is tested on an existing industrial cooler in Bitola, Macedonia. In order to calculate the thickness of the thermal insulation it is necessary to consider a multilayer barrier (wall) where for each layer the thickness is known, except for the insulation material which should be calculated. With the determined geometric and physical characteristics of the wall, it is necessary to determine the temperature at each point of the construction. By connecting these points, the temperature change through the construction creates dependency with its thickness. After calculating the actual specific heat flux, the temperatures between each layer of the wall are calculated. For improved monitoring of the change in the partial pressure of the saturated water vapor through the layers of the wall, the thickness of the insulating material is divided into approximately five parts, and then a table of temperature changes and the corresponding value of the partial pressure of the saturated aqueous vapor is created. In order to avoid condensation of the water vapor when it passes through the wall, a certain condition must be fulfilled. With certain measurements adopted, a computer simulation was created and measurementes calculated. The computer simulation enables swift and accurate calculation of thickness of the insulation at multilayer bulkheads found at industrial coolers, and allows selection of the location for the insulation and steam barrier in the bulkhead.

Water influence on micro and homogenized modulus of shale

By using the outcrop shale of Longmaxi-3, a series of experiments including in-situ AFM Force Map, SEM-EDS before and after water vapor saturation and uniaxial/triaxial compression tests are conducted to discover the changing pattern of shale mechanical properties from micro and macro level. The current research first measures the micro elastic modulus distribution changes of shale under water condition, also verifying the water-softening effects. Expectation Maximization algorithm programmed by C language is utilized to define Gaussian Mixture Model of micro elastic modulus under different moisture. Self-Consistent Scheme by C program and Mori-Tanaka Scheme is adopted to upscale the micro modulus based on the results of EM. In the comparison with compression test results, M-T scheme behaves better on estimating modulus of originally dry shale core than SC scheme, however, the homogenization technique cannot achieve the accurate estimation of core sample modulus based on micro modulus. The combination of AFM morphology and SEM-EDS verifies the component CaSO4 of newborn particles when moisture is low. Due to strong heterogeneity of shale, the relationship between elastic modulus and water saturation is negative and non-linear, homogenization technique is not proper to upscale micro modulus of sample processed by water or other factors.

Poly(sulfobetaine)-Based Diblock Copolymer Thin Films in Water/Acetone Atmosphere: Modulation of Water Hydration and Co-nonsolvency-Triggered Film Contraction.

The water swelling and subsequent solvent exchange including co-nonsolvency behavior of thin films of a doubly thermo-responsive diblock copolymer (DBC) are studied via spectral reflectance, time-of-flight neutron reflectometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The DBC consists of a thermo-responsive zwitterionic (poly(4-((3-methacrylamidopropyl) dimethylammonio) butane-1-sulfonate)) (PSBP) block, featuring an upper critical solution temperature transition in aqueous media but being insoluble in acetone, and a nonionic poly(N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) block, featuring a lower critical solution temperature transition in water, while being soluble in acetone. Homogeneous DBC films of 50-100 nm thickness are first swollen in saturated water vapor (H2O or D2O), before they are subjected to a contraction process by exposure to mixed saturated water/acetone vapor (H2O or D2O/acetone-d6 = 9:1 v/v). The affinity of the DBC film toward H2O is stronger than for D2O, as inferred from the higher film thickness in the swollen state and the higher absorbed water content, thus revealing a pronounced isotope sensitivity. During the co-solvent-induced switching by mixed water/acetone vapor, a two-step film contraction is observed, which is attributed to the delayed expulsion of water molecules and uptake of acetone molecules. The swelling kinetics are compared for both mixed vapors (H2O/acetone-d6 and D2O/acetone-d6) and with those of the related homopolymer films. Moreover, the concomitant variations of the local environment around the hydrophilic groups located in the PSBP and PNIPMAM blocks are followed. The first contraction step turns out to be dominated by the behavior of the PSBP block, whereas the second one is dominated by the PNIPMAM block. The unusual swelling and contraction behavior of the latter block is attributed to its co-nonsolvency behavior. Furthermore, we observe cooperative hydration effects in the DBC films, that is, both polymer blocks influence each other's solvation behavior.