Quinoa Saponins Research Articles

Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action saponins from Chenopodium quinoa Willd. husks against foodborne pathogenic bacteria

The present study investigated the chemical composition of quinoa saponins and examined their possible antimicrobial modes of action against foodborne pathogenic bacteria.Six different compounds (Q1-Q6) were extracted from quinoa husks, separated/purified by column chromatography and identified by HPLC/MS and NMR. The anti-bactericidal effects against six types of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella enteritidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Listeria ivanovii, were determined by the disk diffusion method and assessment of the MIC/MBC. The changes in membrane integrity were tested using a microplate reader, a flow cytometer, and a transmission electron microscopy.All the compounds exerted anti-bactericidal effects against S. aureus, S. epidermidis and B. cereus. Q4 showed the strongest activity against S. aureus and S. epidermidis, with an MIC value of 0.0625 mg/mL and an MBC value of 0.125 mg/mL. The concentration of quinoa saponin Q4 exhibited a dose-dependent relationship with its anti-bactericidal effect. In fact, a dose-effect relationship was found between the concentration of all quinoa saponins and their bacteriostatic effects. In addition, the release of nucleic acids and proteins from B. cereus increased gradually with increases in the Q4 concentration, and the membrane structure of B. cereus was destroyed by Q4.Notably, quinoa saponins caused severe damage to the tested bacteria through degradation of the cell wall followed by disruption of the cytoplasmic membrane and membrane proteins, which resulted in leakage of the cell contents.

An Insight into Saponins from Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd): A Review.

Saponins are an important group found in Chenopodium quinoa. They represent an obstacle for the use of quinoa as food for humans and animal feeds because of their bitter taste and toxic effects, which necessitates their elimination. Several saponins elimination methods have been examined to leach the saponins from the quinoa seeds; the wet technique remains the most used at both laboratory and industrial levels. Dry methods (heat treatment, extrusion, roasting, or mechanical abrasion) and genetic methods have also been evaluated. The extraction of quinoa saponins can be carried out by several methods; conventional technologies such as maceration and Soxhlet are the most utilized methods. However, recent research has focused on technologies to improve the efficiency of extraction. At least 40 saponin structures from quinoa have been isolated in the past 30 years, the derived molecular entities essentially being phytolaccagenic, oleanolic and serjanic acids, hederagenin, 3β,23,30 trihydroxy olean-12-en-28-oic acid, 3β-hydroxy-27-oxo-olean-12en-28-oic acid, and 3β,23,30 trihydroxy olean-12-en-28-oic acid. These metabolites exhibit a wide range of biological activities, such as molluscicidal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, hemolytic, and cytotoxic properties.

Analysis of saponin composition and comparison of the antioxidant activity of various parts of the quinoa plant (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).

Quinoa plant is a valuable food crop because of its high nutritional and functional values. Total saponin content, sapogenins, polyphenol, and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities were analyzed in various parts of quinoa plants, including sprout, seeds, bran, pericarp, leave, stem, and root. Quinoa seeds (QS) had significantly higher sapogenin content than quinoa stem (QT), quinoa leaves (QL), and quinoa roots (QR). Quinoa saponin was mainly composed of phytolaccagenic acid. Quinoa root (QR) had the highest amount of total saponin (13.39 g 100 g−1), followed by quinoa bran. The highest total phenolic content (30.96 mg GAE 100 g−1) and total flavonoid content (61.68 mg RE 100 g−1) were observed in quinoa root extract and 1‐month‐old sprout extract, respectively. Quinoa sprouts showed better antioxidant activity than fully grown parts of the quinoa plant. Overall, root and sprout had a higher antioxidant capacity compared to other parts of the quinoa plant, suggesting the potential use of quinoa root and sprout as a nutraceutical ingredient in the health food industry.

Reducing the damage of quinoa saponins on human gastric mucosal cells by a heating process.

Different food processing methods will influence the structure and activity of compounds. In this work, molecular structure and different content crude saponins that were extracted from quinoa, treated with water soaking, water boiling, and water steaming were analyzed by HPLC. Flow cytometry was employed to investigate the effects of the main saponins on the GES‐1 cell line. HPLC/MS analysis revealed that water soaking induced an extensive conversion of polar saponin Qc (424.41 ± 21.11 mg/g) to the less polar compound Qf (247.04 ± 15.71 mg/g). After treatment with 100 μg of Qf instead of Qc for 24 hr, the percentage of dead cells increased from 20.1 ± 2.2% to 86.2 ± 4.8%. One major reason of this result is that less polar saponins could damage membrane integrity more easier than polar saponins. The results indicate that saponin toxicity is enhanced after degradation, so it is necessary to avoid degradation before use.

A green analytical assay for the quantitation of the total saponins in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) based on macro lens-coupled smartphone

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a microtiter macro lens-coupled smartphone (MCS) assay for the quantitation of the total saponins in quinoa based on foam measurement. The 96-well micro plate with a black bottom and an inclination angle = 12.102° of macro lens-coupled smartphone allows to acquire images with a high resolution. The foam stability, a critical aspect for the MCS assay, was significantly improved by the inclusion of a chelating agent (EDTA 50 mmol L−1) and bovine serum albumin (0.5 mg mL−1). The MCS assay was linear within the range of 9.039–180.773 × 10−4 mg mL−1 of saponin (R2 = 0.9929), using the integrated density/area as a foam measurement (Y) and the logarithm of saponin concentration (X) (Y = 372.1 + 104.2LogX). The MCS assay was 50-folds more sensitive than afrosimetric assay -AA- with LOD = 3.168 × 10−4 mg mL−1 and LOQ = 4.784 × 10−4 mg mL−1. MCS assay was more reproducible (relative standard deviation (RSD) = 0.632–9.646%) than AA (RSD = 3.44–44.04%). The correlation analysis, Bland-Altman analysis and Passing-Bablok regression showed good agreement between total saponin content in quinoa as measured by the MCS assay and AA. Based on the green analytical procedure index, MCS assay can be considered as a green procedure.

Improved antibacterial effects of alkali-transformed saponin from quinoa husks against halitosis-related bacteria

BackgroundQuinoa is a food crop native to the Andes. The process of dehulling quinoa can produce approximately 8–12% husk, which is often discarded because it contains bitter saponin. Saponin derived from quinoa has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory and antifungal activity. However, the antibacterial effects of quinoa saponin against halitosis-related bacteria are still unclear.MethodsIn this study, quinoa saponin (QS) and alkali-transformed saponin (ATS) were separated by AB-2 resin to obtain QS-30, QS-80, ATS-30 and ATS-80. Halitosis-related bacteria included Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) and Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum). The MIC and MBC were determined using gradient dilutions in 96-well plates, and the saponins were identified by HPLC and mass spectrometry. The changes in membrane integrity were tested using a microplate reader, the membrane potential was tested by spectrofluorometry, and the morphological characteristics were examined using a transmission electron microscope to explore the antibacterial mechanisms.ResultsAntibacterial assays indicated that QS-80 and ATS-80 showed inhibitory activity. In addition, ATS-80 exerted a stronger inhibitory effect than QS-80, especially against Fusobacterium nucleatum, with a lower minimum inhibitory concentration (31.3 μg/mL) and a lower minimum bactericidal concentration (125 μg/mL). ATS-80 destroyed the bacterial membrane structure, leading to bacterial death.ConclusionsBased on the excellent antibacterial activity and economic prospects of quinoa husk, ATS-80 could be used as an antibacterial agent to treat halitosis.

Effects of saponin-rich quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) bran and bran extract in diets of adapted and non-adapted quinoa pests in laboratory bioassays

Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) produces bitter-tasting triterpene saponins that must be removed prior to consumption, significantly adding to production costs. Breeders have therefore prioritized the development of low-saponin “sweet” cultivars with little concern for the ecological benefits these compounds may confer. Quinoa saponins are thought to provide protection against herbivores and microbial pathogens, although there is very little data to support these assumptions. Here we begin to address the question of whether biologically relevant concentrations of saponins exert negative effects against insects and pathogens that attack quinoa, as well as against species not associated with quinoa. Using bran of the coastal genotype Cahuil as the source of saponins, we conducted feeding assays with larvae of 3 noctuid insect species. Antifungal activity against 8 species was assayed using bran extract incorporated into PDA media. Quinoa bran showed insecticidal activity against only the non-quinoa feeder Pseudaletia impuncta , while the quinoa feeders T richoplusia ni and Feltia subterranea were not affected. The bran extract inhibited fungal colony growth of Alternaria arborescens , Botrytis cinerea , and Phytophthora cinnamomi by approximately 50% but had less growth inhibitory effect on Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae, Pestalotiopsis clavispora , Penicillium digitatum , Geotrichum sp ., and the quinoa pathogen Phoma sp. The relatively higher inhibitory activity against some pathogen species did not necessarily correlate with their expected pathogenicity against quinoa. The results of this study suggest that, while the quinoa saponins present in bran and bran extracts may provide some protection against certain insects and phytopathogens, species-specific responses need further exploration.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) crop under Mediterranean conditions: a review

Quinoa is a pseudocereal crop that is well adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions and has significant potential for increased production as a new crop in the Mediterranean region and in other parts of the world, including northern Europe, North America, Asia, and Africa. Because of its exceptional nutritional properties, quinoa is highly appreciated among humans as well as in animal nutrition for feeding both ruminants and nonruminating animals. Data obtained from several studies conducted in Greece, Italy, and Turkey demonstrate the high nutritional and functional potential of quinoa. Nitrogen fertilization has a positive effect on the growth and grain yield of quinoa crops. The biomass has high crude protein and low fiber and is competitive with alfalfa. The assessment of quinoa saponin content is of great importance for the industry. The highest saponin content and yield have been found under organic cropping systems. Oat, bean, and duckweed plants have a great phytotoxic response, especially to the inflorescence tissues of quinoa, confirming the potential allelopathic activity of this promising crop. The major part of the root system is concentrated in the upper 0–30 cm of the soil, and the root length density and root mass density increase with increasing applied nitrogen. In conclusion, quinoa may be suggested as a new alternative crop for semiarid and arid Mediterranean conditions affected by multiple abiotic stress factors because of its stress-tolerant characteristics, adaptability to several agro-ecological conditions, and nutritional and economic value.

Quinoa seed coats as an expanding and sustainable source of bioactive compounds: An investigation of genotypic diversity in saponin profiles

Saponins (SAPs) are a diverse family of plant secondary metabolites and due to their biological activities, SAPs can be utilised as biopesticides and as therapeutic compounds. Given their widespread industrial use, a search for alternative sources of SAPs is a priority. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a valuable food source that is gaining importance worldwide for its nutritional and nutraceutical properties. SAPs from quinoa seed coats could represent a new sustainable source to obtain these compounds in high quantities due to the increasing production and worldwide expansion of the crop. This research aims to characterise saponins of seed coat waste products from six different quinoa varieties for their potential use as a saponin source. Gas chromatography (GC)- and Liquid chromatography (LC)- with mass spectrometry (MS) were applied for qualitative and relative quantitative analysis of saponins. GC–MS led to the identification of three main aglycones, oleanolic acid (Ole), hederagenin (Hed), and a phytolaccagenic acid (Phy), while LC–MS enabled characterization of 24 SAPs with varying sugar moieties. Hed was the most abundant aglycone, followed by Phy and Oledepending on the genotype. Saponin distribution and relative abundances are discussed in the light of genotype provenance and agronomic features. Improved knowledge on the phytochemicals present in quinoa varieties might help in finding valuable and sustainable uses for quinoa SAPs in agroindustry as biopesticides as well as in the production of food and pharmaceuticals.

Saponinas de quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): un subproducto con alto potencial biológico

Las saponinas son un tipo de metabolito secundario ampliamente estudiado por susreconocidas propiedades biológicas. Gran parte de las investigaciones en fitoquímicaestán dirigidas a encontrar nuevas fuentes naturales de saponinas con aplicaciónmedicinal. La quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) es una planta que ha alcanzadoun valioso reconocimiento por ser una fuente de alimentos altamente nutritivos, asícomo una especie rica en saponinas triterpénicas contenidas, principalmente, en lacáscara de las semillas. A la fecha, se han identificado alrededor de 30 saponinas derivadasde la hederagenina y de los ácidos oleanólico, fitolacagénico y serjanico en laplanta. El consumo del grano de quinua implica la remoción de la cáscara a fin dereducir su sabor amargo, la ingesta de niveles residuales de saponinas y la obtenciónde un subproducto rico en las mismas. Esta revisión, inicialmente, ofrece una contextualizacióngeneral de las saponinas; posteriormente, recopila las característicasestructurales de las saponinas identificadas en la quinua, describe el efecto del procesamientodel grano en su contenido de saponinas y, finalmente, expone los efectosbiológicos explorados con extractos de saponinas de quinua, los cuales pueden serconsiderados como punto de partida en investigaciones futuras dirigidas al fortalecimientode su uso en el campo farmacéutico y/o nutracéutico.

Suppressive effects of saponin-enriched extracts from quinoa on 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation.

This study was performed to investigate the effect of quinoa saponins (QS) on the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. QS inhibited triglyceride (TG) accumulation in the mature adipocytes, evidenced by oil-red O staining and intracellular quantification. Real time-PCR analysis and western blot analysis showed that QS significantly down-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of key adipogenic transcription factors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha (C/EBPα), however, they had no significant effect on CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta (C/EBPβ) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein delta (C/EBPδ) which are the upstream regulators for adipogenesis compared with mature adipocytes. QS also reduced mRNA and protein expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) related to the late stage of adipogenesis. Furthermore, lipoprotein lipase (LPL), adipocyte protein 2 (aP2) and glucose transporter 4 (Glut4), as adipocyte specific genes, were decreased in mature adipocytes by QS treatment. These findings indicate that QS are capable of suppressing adipogenesis and therefore they seem to be natural bioactive factors effective in adipose tissue mass modulation.

Anti‐Inflammatory Activity of Saponins from Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Seeds in Lipopolysaccharide‐Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophages Cells

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal from South Americas that has received increased interest around the world because it is a good source of different nutrients and rich in saponins. However, the saponins in quinoa seeds planted in China were poorly known. We obtained 4 quinoa saponin fractions, Q30, Q50, Q70, and Q90, and 11 saponins were determined by HPLC-MS. Q50 possessed 8 individual saponins and had the highest content of saponins. We further evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity on RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells of the 4 fractions. The 4 fractions not only dose-dependently decreased the production of inflammatory mediators NO but also inhibited the release of inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells. These results suggest that quinoa saponins may be used as functional food components for prevention and treatment of inflammation. Our findings demonstrate that saponins from the quinoa have the potential to anti-inflammation by suppressing the release of inflammatory cytokines.

Immunoadjuvant Activity, Toxicity Assays, and Determination by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS of Triterpenic Saponins from Chenopodium quinoa Seeds

The adjuvant activity of Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa) saponins on the humoral and cellular immune responses of mice subcutaneously immunized with ovalbumin (OVA) was evaluated. Two quinoa saponin fractions were obtained, FQ70 and FQ90, and 10 saponins were determined by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS. Mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA alone or adjuvanted with Quil A (adjuvant control), FQ70, or FQ90. FQ70 and FQ90 significantly enhanced the amount of anti-OVA-specific antibodies in serum (IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b) in immunized mice. The adjuvant effect of FQ70 was significantly greater than that of FQ90. However, delayed type hypersensitivity responses were higher in mice immunized with OVA adjuvanted with FQ90 than mice treated with FQ70. Concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide-, and OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation were measured, and FQ90 significantly enhanced the Con A-induced splenocyte proliferation. The results suggested that the two quinoa saponin fractions enhanced significantly the production of humoral and cellular immune responses to OVA in mice.

Simultaneous Determination of Phenolic Compounds and Saponins in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) by a Liquid Chromatography–Diode Array Detection–Electrospray Ionization–Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Methodology

A new liquid chromatography methodology coupled to a diode array detector and a time-of-flight mass spectrometer has been developed for the simultaneous determination of phenolic compounds and saponins in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). This method has allowed the simultaneous determination of these two families of compounds with the same analytical method for the first time. A fused-core column C18 has been used, and the analysis has been performed in less than 27 min. Both chromatographic and electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry parameters have been optimized to improve the sensitivity and to maximize the number of compounds detected. A validation of the method has also been carried out, and free and bound polar fractions of quinoa have been studied. Twenty-five compounds have been tentatively identified and quantified in the free polar fraction, while five compounds have been tentatively identified and quantified in the bound polar fraction. It is important to highlight that 1-O-galloyl-β-D-glucoside, acacetin, protocatechuic acid 4-O-glucoside, penstebioside, ethyl-m-digallate, (epi)-gallocatechin, and canthoside have been tentatively identified for the first time in quinoa. Free phenolic compounds have been found to be in the range of 2.746-3.803 g/kg of quinoa, while bound phenolic compounds were present in a concentration that varies from 0.139 and 0.164 g/kg. Indeed, saponins have been found to be in a concentration that ranged from 5.6 to 7.5% of the total composition of whole quinoa flour.

Antifungal properties of quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd) alkali treated saponins against Botrytis cinerea

Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a Latin American food staple readily available in large quantities in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador. The outer husk of the grain is removed prior to consumption to reduce its bitter taste. At present, quinoa husks are considered as a by-product with no commercial value, despite its high content of triterpenoid saponins (20–30%). Due to this, the present work was undertaken to test if quinoa saponins have antifungal properties against Botrytis cinerea and if this activity is enhanced after alkaline treatment, since recent reports indicate that alkaline treatment of quinoa saponins increase their biological activity. Six products were tested against B. cinerea: (1) non-purified quinoa extract, (2) purified quinoa extract, (3) alkali treated non-purified quinoa extract, (4) alkali treated purified quinoa extract, (5) non-purified quinoa extract treated with alkali but without thermal incubation and (6) purified quinoa extract treated with alkali but without thermal incubation. Untreated quinoa extracts showed minimum activity against mycelial growth of B. cinerea. Also, no effects were observed against conidial germination, even at 7 mg saponins/ml. However, when the saponin extracts were treated with alkali, mycelial growth and conidial germination were significantly inhibited. At doses of 5 mg saponins/ml, 100% of conidial germination inhibition was observed, even after 96 h of incubation. Fungal membrane integrity experiments based on the uptake of the fluorogenic dye SYTOX green showed that alkali treated saponins generate membrane disruption, while non-treated saponins had no effects. The higher antifungal activity of alkaline treated saponins is probably due to the formation of more hydrophobic saponin derivatives that may have a higher affinity with the sterols present in cell membranes.

Efficacy of quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa) saponins against golden apple snail ( Pomacea canaliculata) in the Philippines under laboratory conditions

A novel product for managing Pomacea canaliculata, golden apple snail (GAS), containing quinoa saponins ( Chenopodium quinoa), was evaluated under laboratory conditions for the protection of newly sprouted rice seeds. Experimental methods mimicked conditions found in direct-seeded rice cultivation in the Philippines, but with a very high GAS density (90 snails/m 2). Protection of newly sprouted seeds was directly proportional to saponin concentration in rice water. At 9 and 11 ppm saponin, seedling protection after 48 h against GAS of different sizes was 93% and 95%, respectively. Seedling recovery after 5 d with 11 ppm saponin was 93%. This value declined to 0% and 4%, for the control (untreated) and niclosamide, a synthetic chemical molluscicide, respectively. The results indicated that although niclosamide provides high efficacy against GAS (100% mortality, 24 h), it has a serious detrimental effect on rice seedlings. Mean GAS mortality with 11 ppm saponin was low at 24 h (45%), but increased to 94% at 48 h. Thus, seedling protection was probably due to an almost immediate closure of the snail's opercula when exposed to saponin solutions, followed by significant death rates within 24 and 48 h. The product also exhibits ovicidal effects, particularly with 1–5 d old egg masses; older egg masses were less susceptible to the product. The use of 11 ppm saponin slightly affected shoot growth, but this effect disappeared with time and the plants attained normal development. Saponin application rates at 10 ppm saponin in the rice water correspond to ca. 6 kg product/ha under cultivation conditions used in the Philippines. These results suggest that quinoa saponins may represent a commercially feasible environmentally benign alternative to synthetic chemical molluscicides against GAS, particularly in direct-seeded rice culture.

Novel molluscicide against Pomacea canaliculata based on quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa) saponins

A novel molluscicide against Pomacea canaliculata snails (Golden apple snail, GAS) based on quinoa saponins ( Chenopodium quinoa) is presented. Quinoa is a pseudocereal extensively cultivated and consumed in Bolivia and Peru. The external husk of the grains is removed prior to human consumption due to the bitter taste imparted by their high saponin content (predominantly bidesmosidic saponins), and constitutes a by-product with no commercial value. When tested against GAS, quinoa husks showed no activity up to 121 ppm product (approximately 35 ppm saponins). To increase their molluscicidal properties, the husks were treated with alkali to convert bidesmosidic saponins to more active monodesmosides. This product killed 100% GAS under laboratory conditions at 24 h at approximately 33 ppm product. Surprisingly no toxicity to fish, such as goldfish or tilapia, was observed up to the highest concentration tested (e.g., 54 ppm product). This is a main advantage in relation to available commercial molluscicides that kill fish at product doses lower than those that kill GAS (e.g., niclosamide). The product was also tested preliminary under field conditions in Northern Argentina with similar GAS mortality results. A preliminary LC/ESI–MS/MS study revealed that the husks contained a mixture of known and novel bidesmosidic and monodesmosidic saponins. However, the alkali treated husks did not contain monodesmosidic saponins as expected, but large molecular weight saponin derivatives, probably formed between the saponins and other compounds present in the quinoa hulls under alkaline conditions. Due to the complex nature of these compounds, no direct relationship could be established between product efficacy and a higher content of monodesmosidic saponins. The results suggested that the molluscicidal properties are probably related to the formation of more hydrophobic compounds after alkaline treatment that have higher affinity with the cholesterol present in GAS gills.

Tandem Mass Spectrometric Analysis of a Complex Triterpene Saponin Mixture of Chenopodium quinoa

A nano-HPLC electrospray ionization multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-ESI-MS/MS) approach was applied to a complex crude triterpene saponin extract of Chenopodium quinoa seed coats. In ESI-MS/MS spectra of triterpene saponins, characteristic fragmentation reactions are observed and allow the determination of aglycones, saccharide sequences, compositions, and branching. Fragmentation of aglycones provided further structural information. The chemical complexity of the mixture was resolved by a complete profiling. Eighty-seven triterpene saponins comprising 19 reported and 68 novel components were identified and studied by MS. In addition to four reported, five novel triterpene aglycones were detected and characterized according to their fragmentation reactions in ESI-MS/MS and electron ionization mass spectrometry (EI-MS). As a novelty fragmentation pathways were proposed and analyzed based upon quantum chemical calculations using a hybrid Hartree-Fock density functional method. Accuracy of the assignment procedure was proven by isolation and structure determination of a novel compound. As the relative distribution and composition of saponins varies between different cultivars and soils, the presented strategy allows a rapid and complete analysis of Chenopodium quinoa saponin distribution and composition, and is particularly suitable for quality control and screening of extracts designated for pharmaceutical, agricultural, and industrial applications.

Adjuvant action of Chenopodium quinoa saponins on the induction of antibody responses to intragastric and intranasal administered antigens in mice

Saponins extracted from the seed of Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa) were studied for their ability to act as mucosal adjuvants upon their intragastric or intranasal administration together with model antigens in mice. Quinoa saponins, co-administered intragastrically or intranasally with cholera toxin or ovalbumin, potentiated specific IgG and IgA antibody responses to the antigens in serum, intestinal and lung secretions. The potentiating effect of the saponins appeared, to some extent, mediated by increased permeability of the mucosa, allowing increased uptake of the antigen. The intragastric administration of 99mTc-radiolabeled human serum albumin together with quinoa saponins revealed an increased presence of the radiolabeled protein in blood, liver, spleen and lungs of mice. This study indicates the potential of quinoa saponins as adjuvants for mucosally administered vaccines.

Saponins of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa): Effects of processing on their abundance in quinoa products and their biological effects on intestinal mucosal tissue

AbstractQuinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a valuable source of protein in some parts of South America, and it is likely to be exploited further in both developing and industrialised countries. However, quinoa seeds contain significant levels of saponins which are potential antinutrients. In the present study, the effects of processing on the quantity and composition of saponins in quinoa products were determined, and the biological effects of quinoa grain and cereal products containing high or low levels of saponins were investigated both in vitro and in vivo in the rat. Quinoa saponins were shown to be membranolytic against cells of the small intestine and to cause an increase in mucosal permeability in vitro. Unwashed bitter quinoa caused a significant food aversion and poor food conversion efficiency in rats. However, processing quinoa, during the manufacture of an infant cereal, reduced the concentration and membranolytic activity of saponins, and increased the palatability and nutritional quality of the cereal product to a level similar to that of a wheat‐based cereal product.