Efficacy Of Sanitizers Research Articles

Comparison of estimated norovirus infection risk reductions for a single fomite contact scenario with residual and nonresidual hand sanitizers

The purpose of this study was to relate experimentally measured log10 human norovirus reductions for a nonresidual (60% ethanol) and a residual (quaternary ammonium-based) hand sanitizer to infection risk reductions. Human norovirus log10 reductions on hands for both sanitizers were experimentally measured using the ASTM International Standard E1838-10 method, with modification. Scenarios included product application to: (1) inoculated fingerpads with 30- and 60-second contact times, and (2) hands followed by inoculation with human norovirus immediately and 4 hours later. Hand sanitizer efficacies were used in a mathematical model estimating norovirus infection risk from a single hand-to-fomite contact under low and high environmental contamination conditions. The largest log10 reductions for the residual and nonresidual hand sanitizers were for a 60-second contact time, reducing infection risk by approximately 99% and 85%, respectively. Four hours after application, the residual hand sanitizer reduced infection risks by 78.5% under high contamination conditions, whereas the nonresidual hand sanitizer offered no reduction. Log10 virus and infection risk reductions were consistently greater for the residual hand sanitizer under all scenarios. Further data describing residual hand sanitizer efficacy with additional contamination or tactile events are needed. Residual antinoroviral hand sanitizers may reduce infection risks for up to 4 hours.

Utilizing kitchen steamers to inactivate Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enterica on whole cantaloupe melons

AbstractCantaloupes contaminated with Listeria and Salmonella have caused large scale of foodborne illness outbreaks in recent years. Prior research has shown that heat treatment can be used to reduce microbial contaminates on fruit surfaces. However, no study has evaluated the use of kitchen steamers for inactivating foodborne pathogens on cantaloupes. The purpose of this study was to test the sanitization efficacy of three models of electrical kitchen steamers (steamer‐A, ‐B, and ‐C) for eliminating foodborne pathogens on cantaloupe surfaces. Fresh cantaloupes were spot‐inoculated with Listeria monocytogens or Salmonella enterica and kept at 4 or 22 °C for a day before steam treatment for ≤100 s. Test results show that the surface of nonrefrigerated cantaloupes can be decontaminated (with ≥5.0 log reduction) within 60 s using any of the tested steamers. For refrigerated fruits (4 °C), however, only two steamers (steamer‐B and ‐C) decontaminated the cantaloupes within 60 s and they were unable to render the pathogens undetected in enriched samples. Salmonella was more susceptible than Listeria to steam treatment. In conclusion, electrical kitchen steamers can be utilized by consumers to sanitize whole cantaloupes prior to consumption. However, fruit temperature and steamer selection can influence the heating time required for surface sanitization.Practical applicationsMelons with netted rind surfaces, such as cantaloupes, likely have caused more outbreaks because their surface shelters pathogens from being eliminated by conventional washing and sanitization. As whole melons marketed at retail stores typically are not treated due to shelf‐life considerations, the safety of untreated melons can be of concern to consumers, especially among at‐risk populations. This study focused on the evaluation of the use of commercially available kitchen steamers in eliminating foodborne pathogens on cantaloupe surfaces. This study showed that kitchen steamers can be utilized to sanitize whole cantaloupes and also at household level, be a highly beneficial for the average concerned consumer to reduce the risk of pathogens on produce before consumption.

Biobased Sanitizer Delivery System for Improved Sanitation of Bacterial and Fungal Biofilms.

Biofilms can persist in food-processing environments because of their relatively higher tolerance and resistance to antimicrobials including sanitizers. In this study, a novel biobased sanitizer composition was developed to effectively target biofilms and deliver chlorine-based sanitizers to inactivate bacterial and fungal biofilms. The biobased composition was developed by encapsulating a chlorine-binding polymer in a biobased yeast cell wall particle (YCWP) microcarrier. This study demonstrates the high affinity of biobased compositions to bind target bacterial and fungal cells and inactivate 5 logs of model pathogenic bacteria and fungi in wash water without and with high organic load (chemical oxygen demand = 2000 mg/L) in 30 s and 5 min, respectively. For the sanitation of biofilms, this biobased sanitizer can inactivate 7 logs of pathogenic bacteria and 3 logs of fungi after 1 h treatment, whereas the 1 h treatment using conventional chlorine-based sanitizer can only achieve 2-3 log reduction for bacterial biofilms and 1-2 log reduction for fungal biofilms, respectively. The enhanced antimicrobial activity can be attributed to three factors: (a) localized high concentration of chlorine bound on the YCWPs; (b) high affinity of YCWPs to bind diverse microbes; and (c) improved stability in an organic-rich aqueous environment. In summary, these unique attributes of biobased carriers will significantly enhance the sanitation efficacy of biofilms, reduce the persistence and transmission of antimicrobial resistant microbes, limit the use of antimicrobial chemicals, and improve the cost-effectiveness of sanitizers.

Sanitization Efficacy of Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water against pure cultures of Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus spores, in Comparison with Different Water Hardness

The Influence of water source on the production of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) and its sanitization efficacy were investigated. Two different water sources (tap water (TW) and underground water (UGW)) were applied to produce slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) at same setting current, with similar electrolyte flow rate (EFR) and concentration. Properties of SAEW were evaluated based on pH, Available chlorine concentration (ACC) and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP). Methods for the optimization of SAEW production process was examined to obtain high ACC value by implanting different types of electrolytes. Effect of ACC and pH of SAEW were evaluated in vitro towards inactivate foodborne pathogens. The results indicated that TW with hardness of 29 ppm produced effectively SAEW than through UGW (12 ppm) using electrolytes. Likewise, low water hardness could be reinforced by combining HCL with a salt (NaCl or KCL). The optimized SAEW production system was determined at 4% HCl + 2.0 M KCL with EFR of 2 mL/min and 4% HCl + 3.0 M KCL with EFR of 2 mL/min resulting in higher ACC value of 56.5 and 65.5 ppm, respectively using TW. Pathogenic vegetative cells were completely inactivated within 1 min of treatment in SAEW with 20 ppm. Viability observations using Confocal and TEM Microscopy, Flow cytometry, and antimicrobial activity were carried out to confirm the sanitizing effect and cell membrane disruption. Based on the experimental results obtained, it provides a foundation for future advancement towards commercial application of SAEW in the food and agricultural industries.

High-throughput small RNA sequencing for evaluation of grapevine sanitation efficacy

This study describes the application of high-throughput sequencing of small RNA analysis of the efficacy of using Ribavirin to eliminate Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 1, Grapevine fleck virus and Grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus from Vitis vinifera cv. Riesling. The original plant used for sanitation by Ribavirin treatment was one naturally infected with all the viruses mentioned above as confirmed by RT-PCR. A tissue cultures of the plant were established and plantlets obtained were sanitized using Ribavirin. Three years after sanitation, a small RNA sequencing method for virus detection, targeting 21, 22 and 24 nt-long viral small RNAs (vsRNAs), was used to analyze both the mother plant and the sanitized plants. The results showed that the mother plant was infected by the three mentioned viruses and additionally by two viroids - Hop stunt viroid and Grapevine yellow speckle viroid 1. After Ribavirin treatment, the plants contained only the two viroids, with the complete elimination of all the viruses previously present.

Demonstrating the persistent antibacterial efficacy of a hand sanitizer containing benzalkonium chloride on human skin at 1, 2, and 4 hours after application

Use of hand sanitizers has become a cornerstone in clinical practice for the prevention of disease transmission between practitioners and patients. Traditionally, these preparations have relied on ethanol (60%-70%) for bactericidal action. This study was conducted to measure the persistence of antibacterial activity of 2 preparations. One was a non-alcohol-based formulation using benzalkonium chloride (BK) (0.12%) and the other was an ethanol-based formulation (63%) (comparator product). The persistence of antibacterial activity was measured against Staphylococcus aureus using a technique modification prescribed in American Society for Testing and Materials protocol E2752-10 at up to 4 hours after application. The test product (BK) produced a marked reduction in colony-forming units at each of the 3 time points tested (3.75-4.16-log10 reductions), whereas the comparator produced less than 1-log10 reduction over the same time. The differences were highly significant. In the course of patient care or examination, there are instances where opportunities exist for the practitioner's hands to become contaminated (eg, key boards and tables). Persistent antibacterial activity would reduce the chances of transfer to the patient. These results show a major improvement in persistent antibacterial activity for the BK formulation compared to the comparator ethanol-based formulation.

Electropermeabilization of nematode eggs for parasite deactivation.

The eggs of parasitic helminth worms are incredibly resilient - possessing the ability to survive changing environmental factors and exposure to chemical treatments - which has restricted the efficacy of wastewater sanitation. This research reports on the effectiveness of electroporation to permeabilize ova of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), a helminth surrogate, for parasite deactivation. This technique utilizes electric pulses to increase cell membrane permeability in its conventional application, but herein is used to open pores in nonparasitic nematode eggshells - the first report of such an application to the best knowledge of the authors. A parametric evaluation of electric field strength and total electroporation duration of eggs and worms in phosphate-buffered saline was performed using a 1 Hz pulse train of 0.01% duty cycle. The extent of pore formation was determined using a fluorescent label, propidium iodide, targeting C. elegans embryonic DNA. The results of this research demonstrate that electroporation increases eggshell permeability. This treatment, coupled with existing methods of electrochemical disinfection, could improve upon current attempts at the deactivation of helminth eggs. We discuss electroporation treatment conditions and likely modification of the lipid-rich permeability barrier within the eggshell strata.

Antimicrobial efficacy of household sanitizers against artificially inoculated Salmonella on ready-to-eat spinach (Spinacia oleracea)

Due to health concerns regarding the microbiological safety of fresh produce, consumers frequently wash fresh produce before consumption. Household sanitizers including tap water, vinegar (5.0, 1.5, 1.0%), baking soda, commercial wash, and bleach solutions were evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing counts of Salmonella enterica on spinach leaves. Treatments were carried out at 23 °C for 2 min. An online survey was also conducted in different parts of the United States to collect information on consumers’ practices of washing produce with common household sanitizers. A significantly higher (p < 0.05) bacteria reduction (1.95–2.19 log CFU/g) was achieved using chlorine solution (200 ppm) when compared with other treatments (0.01–1.64 log CFU/g). Running tap water physically reduced bacteria on spinach by 1.52–1.62 log CFU/g. Vinegar solutions at 5, 1.5, and 1.0% promoted reductions of 1.56–1.64, 1.01–1.12, and 0.9–1.02 log CFU/g, respectively. Notably, none of the household sanitizers were capable of entirely removing Salmonella on spinach leaves. With exclusion of chlorinated water and 5% vinegar solution, Salmonella was present in all spend solutions. Our survey showed that three washing solutions were most commonly used by consumers; rubbing produce under running tap water (54.3%), holding produce under running tap water (53.5%), and soaking produce in water (32.9%). Bleached water was the least applied household sanitizer (0.59%). Based on the results of the present work, household sanitizers do not guarantee the complete inactivation of pathogenic bacteria on leafy produce, particularly Salmonella on spinach.

Comparing the antimicrobial efficacy of different hand sanitizers: An In vitro Study

Background: The hands of health-care workers are the primary mode of transmission of the pathogens to patients, so hand hygiene is considered to be the most important and least expensive means of preventing nosocomial infections. Aim: The aim of this study is to assess and compare the antimicrobial efficacy of different hand sanitizers. Subjects and Methods: An in vitro study was conducted in the Department of Public Health Dentistry in the Dental College, Delhi NCR, to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of Green Apple (Himalaya), Lemon (Lifebuoy), Aloe vera (Tempo) hand sanitizers and compared them with the antimicrobial efficacy of sterillium hand sanitizers which is considered as the gold standard in hand sterilization. Twenty five participants were divided into five groups. The Gloves worn by the participants were swabbed after oral prophylaxis using different hand sanitizers. The inoculation of the sample was done and incubated for 48 h at 37°C, and colony-forming units were counted. The data obtained were compiled systematically using Microsoft Excel and were analyzed using the SPSS version 19.0. Data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics to assess the mean, standard deviation, standard error of the mean, and ANOVA and post hoc test for group-wise comparisons. A value of P

Essential Oil Emulsions as Postharvest Sanitizers To Mitigate Salmonella Cross-Contamination on Peppers

Alternative postharvest sanitizers to chlorine are of increasing interest for many organic growers and consumers. An emulsion of clove bud oil (CBO; 0.2 and 0.5%) or thyme oil (0.2 and 0.5%) was evaluated as a sanitizer for produce washing against a five-serovar cocktail of Salmonella on snacking peppers and compared for antimicrobial efficacy with sodium hypochlorite (200 ppm). To further evaluate these compounds, the sanitation efficacy of an emulsion was examined after the addition of 1% organic load (OL). Emulsion treatments at 0.2 and 0.5% thyme oil and 0.5% CBO were the least effected by OL and effectively reduced cross-contamination of Salmonella on clean peppers, in many cases to below the limit of detection (1 CFU/10 g; P < 0.05). Chlorine and 0.2% CBO were rendered ineffective by the addition of OL in preventing cross-contamination and performed similarly to the water control. For surface-inoculated peppers, none of the evaluated treatments performed better than a water-only wash. The antimicrobial efficacy of the essential oil emulsions in the presence of OL indicates these emulsions may be suitable replacements for chlorine in postharvest produce wash systems.

Biofilm formation of Listeria monocytogenes and its resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in a simulated salmon processing environment

L. monocytogenes is able to form biofilms as survival strategy in food processing environments. This study aimed to evaluate biofilm formation and sanitizer resistance of L. monocytogenes under a simulated salmon processing environment, involving low temperature, presence of organic matter and cultivable indigenous microorganisms (CIMs) in fresh salmon. Biofilms of L. monocytogenes in single- and mixed-species with CIMs were formed on stainless steel coupons by incubating in diluted trypticase soy broth (dTSB, 1:20) or salmon broth at 4 and 15 °C for 14 days. Biofilm cell counts before and after exposure to Whisper™ V (quaternary ammonium compounds, 200 ppm) were determined on day 1, 4, 7, and 14. Results showed that L. monocytogenes single-species biofilms developed at 15 °C had higher populations compared with those formed at 4 °C from day 1 to day 7. The cell populations of the 4 °C-grown biofilms increased by 1–2 log CFU/cm2 after 14 days, whereas the cell density of 15 °C-grown biofilms on day 14 was not significantly (P > 0.05) different from that on day 1. The presence of CIMs led to lower L. monocytogenes populations in mixed-species biofilms on day 7 and day 14, whereas it did not significantly (P > 0.05) influence the sanitizer sensitivity of L. monocytogenes. By PCA analysis, culture medium was identified a dominant factor influencing biofilm formation and QAC resistance compared with other factors. Specifically, salmon broth promoted L. monocytogenes biofilm formation and diminished the efficacy of sanitizer compared with dTSB. Confocal images showed thick matrix of biofilms cultured in salmon broth, and a visible coating layer can be observed on the surface. This conditioning layer might explain for the lower sanitizer susceptibility of L. monocytogenes in salmon broth. Thus, these results could advance our understanding towards persistence of L. monocytogenes in salmon processing environments, with emphasize on food-related broth in increasing its biofilm formation and sanitizer resistance. Our study suggests that food-related broth should be applied in biofilm study instead of chemical culture medium, which might lead to underestimation of L. monocytogenes survival at food premises.

Efficacy of chemical sanitizers against Bacillus cereus on food contact surfaces with scratch and biofilm.

This study was performed to investigate the efficacy of chemical sanitizers (viz., chlorine, chlorine dioxide, alcohol, and quaternary ammonium compound) against Bacillus cereus on five food contact materials under different conditions (smooth vs. scratched and with vs. without biofilms). After incubating materials in B. cereus suspension, cell adhesion on a smooth surface (10cm2) was in the following ascending order: stainless steel (7.36 ± 0.08 log CFU), glass (7.51 ± 0.26 log CFU), polyethylene (7.66 ± 0.30 log CFU), polypropylene (7.76 ± 0.30 log CFU), and wood (8.02 ± 0.33 log CFU). The efficacy of sanitizers was dramatically reduced in the presence of a biofilm on all materials. Among four different chemical sanitizers, chlorine showed the best bactericidal activity against B. cereus on the surface with scratch and biofilm. Selection of adequate materials, maintenance of a smooth surface, and inhibition of biofilm formation are good practices for food safety.

WASH Benefits Bangladesh trial: management structure for achieving high coverage in an efficacy trial

BackgroundWater, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) efficacy trials deliver interventions to the target population under optimal conditions to estimate their effects on outcomes of interest, to inform subsequent selection for inclusion in routine programs. A systematic and intensive approach to intervention delivery is required to achieve the high-level uptake necessary to measure efficacy. We describe the intervention delivery system adopted in the WASH Benefits Bangladesh study, as part of a three-paper series on WASH Benefits Intervention Delivery and Performance.MethodsCommunity Health Workers (CHWs) delivered individual and combined WASH and nutrition interventions to 4169 enrolled households in geographically matched clusters. Households were provided with free enabling technologies and supplies, integrated with parallel behaviour-change promotion. Behavioural objectives were drinking treated, safely stored water, safe feces disposal, handwashing with soap at key times, and age-appropriate nutrition behaviours (birth to 24 months). The intervention delivery system built on lessons learned from prior WASH intervention effectiveness, implementation, and formative research studies. We recruited local CHWs, residents of the study villages, through transparent merit-based selection methods, and consultation with community leaders. CHW supervisors received training on direct intervention delivery, then trained their assigned CHWs. CHWs in turn used the technologies in their own homes. Each CHW counseled six to eight intervention households spread across a 0.2–2.2-km radius, with a 1:12 supervisor-to-CHW ratio. CHWs met monthly with supervisor-trainers to exchange experiences and adapt technology and behaviour-change approaches to evolving conditions. Intervention uptake was tracked through fidelity measures, with a priori benchmarks necessary for an efficacy study.ResultsSufficient levels of uptake were attained by the fourth intervention assessment month and sustained throughout the intervention period. Periodic internal CHW monitoring resulted in discontinuation of a small number of low performers.ConclusionsThe intensive intervention delivery system required for an efficacy trial differs in many respects from the system for a routine program. To implement a routine program at scale requires further research on how to optimize the supervisor-to-CHW-to-intervention household ratios, as well as other program costs without compromising program effectiveness.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, ID: NCC01590095. Registered on 2 May 2012.

Efficacy of commercial sanitizers against fungi of concern in the food industry

Choosing an active ingredient for sanitizing agents, and the concentrations to be employed for hygiene in food industries is an important step in order to obtain the maximum efficacy of a particular product. However, the data available on the sensitivity of food spoilage fungi to sanitizers are very limited. Thus, the aim of this work was to evaluate the antifungal efficacy of commercial sanitizing agents appropriate for use in food industries on species with potential for food spoilage. Tests were carried out following a European Committee for Standardization (CEN) protocol for testing the antifungal effect of chemical sanitizers, with adaptations. Six fungi were used: Aspergillus brasiliensis (ATCC 16404), Candida albicans (ATCC 10231), Cladosporium cladosporioides (IMI 158517), Penicillium commune (CCT 7683), P. polonicum (NGT 33/12) and P. roqueforti (IMI 217568); five sanitizers were used at three different concentrations: benzalkonium chloride (0.3%, 2.5%, 5%), biguanide (2%, 3.5%, 5%), peracetic acid (0.15%, 1.5%, 3%), quaternary ammonium (0.3%, 2.5%, 5%) and sodium hypochlorite (0.1%, 0.5%, 1.5%). Variation in the antifungal efficacy of sanitizers was seen. Sodium hypochlorite was the most efficient agent at the concentrations evaluated, and biguanide should not be chosen for controlling food spoilage fungi.

Expanding Evaporation Rate Model Determination of Hand-Rub Sanitizers to the General Freshman and Engineering Chemistry Undergraduate Laboratory: Inquiry-Based Formulations, Viscosity Measurements, and Qualitative Biological Evaluations

Additions to the popular evaporation rate determination laboratory of alcohol-based hand-rub sanitizers are described here. Significantly, inquiry-driven protocols for formulating hand-rub sanitizers, falling-ball viscometry, and sanitizer efficacy are included. Incorporation of familiar substances (“molecular relevance”) enables students to assimilate knowledge and connect to and recognize interrelated disciplines. To stimulate engagement and project ownership, students were given the opportunity to alter sanitizer formulations by varying the amount and molecular weight of the gelling agent. Viscosities were determined using a falling-ball viscometer to integrate physics and fluid dynamics concepts into these experiments. Lastly, to stress microbiological applications and determine the efficacy of their hand sanitizers, students tested the formulated hand sanitizers for qualitative efficacy using agar plating of skin secretions and comparing colonies formed from sanitized versus nonsanitized hands. Chemistry students with diverse interests recognized links across disciplinary boundaries (e.g., increased their awareness of physical properties of hand sanitizers and the relationship of molecular-scale phenomena to these properties). This three-hour laboratory provides an interdisciplinary supplement directly designed for freshman chemistry and engineering chemistry undergraduates and increases integration among biology, chemistry, engineering, and physics.

495 Variables Impacting Sanitation Efficacy in University Swine Barns.

495 Variables Impacting Sanitation Efficacy in University Swine Barns.

Influence of different organic materials on chlorine concentration and sanitization of slightly acidic electrolyzed water

The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of organic materials on chlorine concentration through in vitro assays to identify the most critical organic material affecting the sanitization of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) during washing process. Organic materials (100–1000 mg/L) were added into SAEW solution and consumption of free chlorine was recorded. Inactivation of pathogens was performed in present of these organic materials. Depletion of free chlorine and sanitization efficacy of SAEW were determined during vegetables and meats samples washing processes. Results of this study showed that protein compounds had more detrimental effects on sanitization efficacy than lipids and carbohydrates. In the presence of carbohydrate and lipid compounds, pathogen population were decreased below the detection limits within 3 min. However, SAEW effect was decreased with increasing protein concentration. During simulation of washing processes, free chlorine was more quickly consumed in reactions containing organic materials for meats compared to those for vegetable produce. However, such difference in chlorine depletion did not significantly influence bacterial reduction between meats and vegetable produce. These results indicate that the optimization of SAEW washing should consider both the amount and the type of organic materials constituting the fresh produce.

Artificial Organic Load for Produce Safety Research: The Need for Standardized Method

The Produce Rule has generated interest in produce safety. Ensuring proper control of the water quality used throughout a production chain is a critical step in ensuring food safety. Properly validated food safety processing controls are needed for effective food saftey management for produce processing water, such as the use of sanitizer in washing systems to avoid possible pathogenic cross-contamination. While previous work has been conducted to assess the influence of sanitizer in the presence of organic matter, there are a wide spectrum of approaches to mimic vegetative organic matter, as well as various methods to analytically characterize the presence of organic load and its effects on sanitizer efficacy. In order to provide better technical support to the produce industry about effective antimicrobial solutions available that work in the presence of organic matter, there is a need for a standard artificial organic load replication method. This review examines the physiochemical properties used to analyze organic load on bench top settings such as turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) and UV254 in efforts to make a comparison between quantitative tools used for measuring organic load and how these compare to measurements seen in onfarm processing conditions. It also looks at procedures used to replicate the organic load and how these affect the physiochemical properties of the water in sanitizer efficacy trials, which has become an important issue in light of the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) regulation where farmers are required to test their agricultural water for the presence of Escherichia coli. Current research approaches that include vegetative material to mimic the organic load found in production water are done artificially using a variety of methods, which makes it challenging to make efficacy comparisons among existing work, and there is minimal published work that utilized production process water conditions. The most common methods of generating artificial organic load utilize fresh produce processed via two different routes: processing with blenders or paddle mixers. While there are various methods currently being used in bench top settings to quantify artificial wash water quality, not all are representative of measures seen on–farm, therefore presenting a challenge to assessing sanitizers most effective in real-world application. Based on published work, COD and TDS provide a more effective indicator to quantify water quality because their respective values provide a linear relationship with the amount of produce that is washed. Understanding the physicochemical properties of agricultural wash water and how they affect the efficacy of sanitizers, would enable the industry to develop a standardized method for organic load replication for the screening of commercially available sanitizers.

Efficacy and effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in emergencies in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review

There are increasing numbers of people affected by natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and conflict. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions are used in nearly all emergency responses to help reduce disease risk. However, there is a lack of summarized evidence on the efficacy and effectiveness of these interventions. We conducted a systematic review of the published and grey literature on the efficacy and effectiveness of short-term WASH interventions in emergency response in low- and middle-income countries, including: developing theory of change models; setting inclusion criteria; conducting the search; selecting evaluations for inclusion; assessing the quality of the evidence; and analysing the included evaluations. Overall, 15,026 documents were identified and 106 studies describing 114 evaluations met inclusion criteria. Interventions from 39 countries were included. Most included evaluations (77 per cent) had high risk of bias and half were from grey literature (50 per cent). For the m...

Efficacy of non-chlorine sanitizer, precooling and modified atmosphere packaging in improving shelf life of tomato during evaporative cooling and CoolBot cold storage

This study combined the use of non-chlorine sanitizer, precooling and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) as prestorage treatments for tomato kept in a simple evaporative cooler (EC) or CoolBot cold storage (CS). Precooling was done by dipping the fruit in 10°C water until fruit temperature decreased to 13-15°C. As a non-chlorine sanitizing treatment, dipping fruit in 0.01% calcinated calcium (CCa) for 5 min at ambient temperature was used. For a combined precooling and sanitizing treatment, 10°C CCa solution was used. Tomatoes were stored in the EC or CS. Ambient storage was included for comparison. Fruits of a summer tomato cultivar, 'BARI Tomato-8', were used in this study. EC temperatures (24.3-27.5°C) were consistently lower and less fluctuating than ambient temperatures (27.8-31.0°C). The CoolBot temperature was maintained at 13±1°C. RH was about 75±2% in CS, whereas it was 75-95% under ambient conditions and 85-99% in the EC. Because of these conditions, together with the relatively high temperatures, fruit rotting was favored and limited the shelf life to 12-13 days, both under ambient conditions and in the EC. Fruit in the CS lasted for 18 days. Rotting affected ˃50% of the fruit on day 15 of ambient storage and of EC storage. In the CS, fruit rotting was first noted on day 9, increased gradually, and reached around 14-18% on day 18. Sanitizing treatment had little effect, but precooling had no extra benefits in reducing rot incidence. MAP significantly reduced weight loss in all storage conditions, showing a greater effect in the CS. Changes in fruit firmness and surface color were delayed significantly in CS compared with ambient conditions or EC storage. After 18 days of storage, the firmness of tomatoes remained higher when stored in CS, showing values of about 5.0 N. Vitamin C content was effectively maintained in the CS, and was about 12.6 mg 100 g-1 after 18 days of storage. EC- and ambient-stored fruit, on the other hand, had similar vitamin C contents at the end of their 12-day storage life.