Sand Patch Test Research Articles

Comparative assessment of hot and warm mix asphalt to develop a sustainable pavement: Kg Ayer Merah Mersing case study

Abstract In this study, the construction and pavement properties of warm mix asphalt (WMA) in rural areas were examined in comparison with the conventional mixture of hot mix asphalt (HMA). Both WMA and HMA mixtures were constructed at Kg Ayer Merah, Mersing, Johor in accordance with Public Work Department specifications, regarding redesign of road pavements in rural areas. This study to evaluate the comparison performance of WMA and HMA mixtures at one month and four months after construction based on performance in mechanical (Rate of cooling, density, Marshall, resilient modulus and dynamic creep) and macrotexture performance (sand patch and pendulum test value) and environmental analysis (carbon emission). The findings showed that WMA mixtures showed similar and better performance over HMA mixtures after four months construction in mechanical performance. WMA also obtained a higher rate of cooling than HMA besides reducing carbon emissions during production and road construction indicating the mixture more convenient to cater for double handling in rural areas. This huge impact is in line with the sustainable development goals (SDGs), which aim to develop sustainable infrastructure and reduce global warming issues.

Measuring the Macrotexture of Pavement Surface Using an Image Processing Technique

The objective of this study was to propose an image processing-based index for measuring pavement macrotexture at the network level. This index enables macrotexture to be measured easily and inexpensively using images collected at traffic speed. The study involved collecting pavement surface images at a constant traffic speed on a test section specifically designed and constructed for this purpose, with three surface course mixes that are commonly used in India, namely, bituminous concrete, stone matrix asphalt, and gap-graded rubberized bituminous mix. Additionally, macrotexture data with regard to mean texture depth (MTD) from the sand patch test and mean profile depth (MPD) from laser sensor-based measurements were obtained at the locations where the images were captured. The surface macrotexture index (SMI), which was derived from wavelet transform-based image texture analysis, was compared with the MTD and MPD data. The results showed that the SMI is an accurate indicator of pavement surface macrotexture. In addition, the study showcased the application of an unsupervised machine learning algorithm to identify and replace outliers in the SMI data that resulted from isolated spots with dirt, pavement markings, and wet surfaces. The research also established relationships between the proposed SMI and MTD/MPD. These relationships are reliable and can be used to predict the commonly used pavement surface construction quality measure MTD and the network-level skid resistance indicator MPD.

Testing and evaluation for skid resistance of steel slag asphalt wearing course based on surface texture characteristics

Steel slag can be utilized in asphalt wearing course as a substitute for aggregates. The surface texture of pavement is the critical factor affecting the friction behaviors and skid resistance. However, further research is needed to analyze the relationship between the surface texture and the skid-resistance performance of steel slag wearing course. In this study, four kinds of asphalt wearing course with different steel slag dosage (0%, 25%, 50% and 75% by volume) and two kinds of gradation (SMA-10, OGFC-10) were designed. Skid resistance of different specimen under different abrasion time was tested by sand patch test and British pendulum test. Laser scanning technology was used to capture and analyze the surface texture characteristics. The results showed that replacing basalt with steel slag could increase the skid resistance and anti-abrasion performance significantly and asphalt wearing course with 50% steel slag has the best skid resistance. The correlation coefficients between skid resistance and surface texture indexes of the specimens were higher than 0.9 before and after abrasion. Ra is more suitable than texture depth (TD) to represent the surface texture characteristics of the specimen and predict anti-skid properties of pavements.

Performance Evaluation on the Application of MAST and RCC on a Cambodian Rural Road: A Case Study

Cambodia’s transportation sector has exhibited tremendous growth in the past decades together with its economic advancement. However, these improvements are only focused on the national and provincial roads, leaving the rural roads underdeveloped. A large percentage of the rural roads in Cambodia are unpaved while those paved roads are in deteriorated condition, making these rural roads prone to structural failure when subjected to heavy truck traffic and massive rainfall. Therefore, an innovative pavement material shall be used in the construction and rehabilitation of Cambodian rural roads. In this study, a composite pavement testbed consisting of a roller compacted cement (RCC) base layer and a modified double bituminous surface treatment (DBST), namely multi-layered bituminous surface treatment (MAST), was constructed in Cambodia and its performance was evaluated. To have a point of comparison, the testbed was divided into three sections with varying combinations of surface and base layer: (1) MAST surface with an RCC base, (2) MAST surface with an aggregate base, and (3) DBST surface with an aggregate base. Initially, a visual inspection was conducted to investigate the surface condition of the testbed. To assess the structural capacity, a light-falling weight deflectometer device was used. Meanwhile, the surface roughness was evaluated through the sand patch test. Lastly, the pass-by test was performed to quantify the noise level of the pavement. Based on the results, the proposed composite pavement performed significantly superior to the typical pavement in Cambodia, which is the third section. In summary, the composite pavement with MAST as the surface layer and RCC as the base layer was observed to be suitable for heavy truck traffic loading and the environmental conditions of Cambodia.

Texture Depth Measurement using a Micro-volume Measurement Technique for Gyratory Compactor Specimens

Introduction: Road safety plays a pivotal role in transportation infrastructure, as the quality of road surfaces is a crucial factor in ensuring safe driving conditions. One of the main indicators of road quality is the Mean texture depth (MTD), which greatly affects a vehicle's traction and skid resistance. Multiple methods are available for analyzing fabric depth, with the volumetric method, known as the sand patch test and standardized under ASTM E 965 – 96, being the traditional approach. Aim: This research aims to adapt a Sand Patch test procedure to evaluate surface texture depth on laboratory specimens with a 100 mm diameter and determine the required amount of sand, both in terms of weight and volume, to conduct this test effectively. Methods: To achieve this, the relationship between the amount of sand required and the sample size was determined. Two different types of asphalt mixtures were studied Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) and Asphalt Concrete (AC), with five gradation limits for each. Results: In the case of the AC10 mixture, the MTD ranged from 0.60 to 1.139 mm, while in SMA 20, the MTD ranged from 1.91 to 2.574 mm. These results are consistent with previous studies, confirming the reliability of the testing methodology, even when working with limited sample areas. Conclusion: In conclusion, the study highlights the potential simplicity and cost-effectiveness of using the Sand Patch micro-volume measurement method. When employed at the initial design stage, this method can provide valuable insights into surface texture, enhancing the design process and potentially further improving road safety.

Identifying Texture and Friction of Asphalt Pavement Surface with Optimized Close-Range Photogrammetry Method

Abstract An adequate pavement texture that provides sufficient brake friction is critical for drive safety. Thus, it is essential to quantify the pavement texture and friction efficiently and accurately. So far, the close-range photogrammetry (CRP) method has been manifested as a promising one. Nonetheless, related measurement parameters have not been well optimized toward its extensive promotion. For this reason, varying measurement parameters of CRP method were thoroughly discussed and optimized in this study. Additionally, the optimized CRP method was further validated using the sand patch test and X-ray computed tomography scan method. Based on this, the estimation of friction coefficients for asphalt concrete (AC-13), stone mastic asphalt (SMA-13), and open graded friction course (OGFC-13) were carried out. The results indicate the following: (1) the optimized CRP method was able to adequately feature the pavement macrotexture; (2) the mean texture depth derived from the CRP method was equivalent to the texture depth measured from sand patch method; in addition, (3) the OGFC asphalt mixture was superior to the SMA and AC asphalt mixtures in terms of the friction coefficients. The optimized CRP method could bring bright prospects for future measurements of pavement texture.

Real-time identification of asphalt mixture segregation during paving process using digital imaging technique and Four-side static moment

The uniformity of the asphalt mixture is severely affected by aggregate segregation during the paving process, and there are many studies that indicate that segregation may lead to early pavement damage. This study aims to develop a real-time asphalt mixture segregation identification algorithm during paving process based on digital imaging technique and the static moment method. Static moments of the aggregate particles relative to the four boundaries of the image were calculated as an evaluation parameter, and the dispersion coefficient between the static moment of segregated asphalt mixture and the value of uniform asphalt mixture was calculated to quantify the degree of segregation. The algorithm was applied in a filed construction project in Yunnan, China. Comparing the result from the proposed algorithm with the sand patch test shows that the proposed algorithm is capable of detecting the segregation of an asphalt mixture in real-time and that it is accurate in identifying the degree of segregation. In addition, the proposed algorithm is more accurate than the sand patch test for areas where the gradation meets the standard but the distribution of the aggregate particles is not uniform.

The Application of Bio-Emulsion from Soybean Oil Partially Epoxidized as a Maintenance Technique for Flexible Pavements

Abstract An increase in the use of biomaterials has been noted in recent years because of several impacts caused by human activities, especially for engineering and paving industry benefits. Several renewable resources, such as a nonfood source of soybean oil, have been successfully tested on modification of asphalt binders. However, their impact on the pavement life cycle is still unknown. Thereby, the objective of this research was to investigate soybean oil as a new, green supply for the maintenance of flexible pavements. The experimental plan consisted of the construction of field test sections through the application of sub-epoxidized soybean oil (SESO) over a flexible pavement surface. Rates of 0.1 and 0.3 L/m2 were chosen, and the main tests intended for study were functional procedures including the British pendulum and sand patch tests on the pavement surface, which were complemented with the indirect tensile strength test for mechanical analysis. The change in the chemical composition of the recovered binder was analyzed by thin layer chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The rheological properties were analyzed by frequency sweep, linear amplitude sweep, and multiple stress creep and recovery, and the tests were carried out with a dynamic shear rheometer. The effects of the SESO bio-emulsion demonstrated a rejuvenating activity on the properties of the aged binder, with mechanical and rheological improvements for both analyzed rates. A further investigation is indicated to evaluate the influence of time on the modification studied in this work. Such testing could ensure the use of SESO bio-emulsion as an environmentally friendly alternative for the maintenance of flexible pavements.

Using Construction and Demolition Waste Materials to Develop Chip Seals for Pavements

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) materials account for a considerable part of waste materials throughout the world. As these materials are not usually recycled, reusing them in construction projects is of major significance. In this study, recycled concrete, bricks, and glass were used as 100% aggregates of chip seal, which is a corrective or preventive pavement maintenance method. A cationic rapid setting (CRS-2) bitumen emulsion was also used to prepare the chip seal. Different tests, including the sand patch test, sweep test, British pendulum tester (BPT), interface bond, and Vialit test, were conducted. The results of these tests revealed that all these materials had sufficient aggregate embedment for vehicle speeds of more than 70 km/h, and the number of chips was less than 10%, indicating their good performance. All developed chip seals ranked as high skid resistance pavement at ambient temperature. The chip seals developed with concrete and glass showed the best adhesion with an asphalt pavement surface and an aggregate–bitumen adhesion at very cold and ambient temperatures due to the fact of their chemical compositions. Overall, using concrete aggregates to develop chip seals under different traffic loads is recommended. Finally, these findings can provide a novel approach for recycling CDW materials with low costs.

Study the Effect of Parameters on Tire-Pavement Interaction Noise (TPIN)

The present study was prepared to determine the effect of different parameters on tire-pavement Interaction noise (TPIN). TPIN was calculated utilizing the Onboard Sound Intensity Method (OBSI) using apparatus Lutron 801 sound level meter single probe 1 kHz of one microphone is placed at the right back test tire with a specific distance. A total of 30 sections were selected for the main roads in Baghdad city, with 134 meters for each test section in length. TPIN data was calculated for various parameters such as different pavement types, various test vehicles, different speeds (40, 56, and 72) km/h, various types of tires, different pavement aging, and different mean texture depth (MTD) values Which is measured by a sand patch test. The sound intensity dBA increases when MTD value and vehicle speed increase in both types of pavements. On the other hand, the sound intensity dBA increases when age increases for asphalt pavement type while it decreases in asphalt concrete pavement type. In addition, the sound intensity dBA in the asphalt pavement type is lower than in the asphalt concrete pavement when compared to the condition of the new pavement. The opposite is in the case of old pavement surfaces. As well as, the sound intensity dBA in Bus is greater than in the passenger car, and the silver stone tire is lower than the Dunlop tire in the passenger car. Finally, it is concluded that TPIN may be reduced or increased due to the effect of different parameters.

Automatic pavement texture measurement using a new 3D image-based profiling system

Pavement surface texture affects safety and comfort of road users. Pavement skid resistance, surface drainage, noise generation and vehicle depreciation are all affected by the pavement surface texture. 3D evaluation is one of the most accurate methods of measuring pavement texture characteristics. In this paper, a 3D automatic device based on a cumulative imaging technique is presented for pavement texture measurement. The presented device has an innovative surface friction reduction system. This system evaluates the effect of different level of humidity on pavement surface texture characteristics. 3D Point cloud models of pavement texture are generated using Structure from Motion (SfM) technique. Then, evaluation indices are extracted based on morphological characteristics of texture. Finally, a new method is presented to evaluate the pavement texture in case of rainfall. A new method for 3D calculation of MDE and RMSR has been proposed. Examination of the relationship between these indices and MTD shows that evaluation of pavement texture and its effect on other related characteristics needs to consider different indices. Experimental tests showed a high correlation between the results of presented system and sand patch test.

3D pavement macrotexture parameters from close range photogrammetry

ABSTRACT The 3D modelling of pavement surface using digital close-range photogrammetry (CRP) was thoroughly analyzed in this work. The accuracy and precision of the technique were effectively measured. A digital 3D model generated by CRP was compared to the model generated by a laser scanner, considered here as a benchmark for precision. The precision, measured as per cent deviation from a computer-generated model, considered here as the true value, was found to be 3.4% and the accuracy, measured as per cent error, was found to be 4.2%. A study involving 85 locations and 5 different surface types was also conducted to compare the calculated macrotexture parameters to those obtained from the Sand Patch Test and British Pendulum Test (BPT). The creation of a 3D surface model allowed the investigation of parameters other than the averages of height and depth proposed in the current standards. Moreover, the process described in this work can be automated and with proper standardization could be used for management and decision making at the infrastructure's network level. The British pendulum did not show a high correlation to the 3D macrotexture parameters except for the Mean Texture Depth (MTD) calculated from the sand patch itself (R 2 = 59.7%).

Interface strength of High-Strength concrete to Ultra-High-Performance concrete

High-Strength Concrete (HSC) has been used in the production of precast concrete structures while Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) has been considered an option for filling the connection between HSC elements due to outstanding mechanical properties and durability. However, it is necessary to investigate how these connections would benefit from using UHPC. This study explores the influence of HSC surface preparation on the strength developed at the interface with UHPC. Surfaces with Exposed coarse aggregates, Shear keys, Exposed fine aggregate, Expanded mesh, Exposed fiber and without any special surface treatment (Smooth) were considered. Both contact measurement and sand patch test were used for quantification of surface roughness. The strength at the interface was evaluated by third-point flexural loading, push-off, slant shear and splitting tension. The flexural test was considered more representative of the adhesion than the splitting test because the failure mode of the first occurred totally at the interface. Depending on the surface preparation, HSC/UHPC interface showed a bond strength comparable or superior to that of the monolithic HSC specimen. Among the surfaces evaluated, the one with Exposed coarse aggregate achieved the best results.

Effect of waste glass aggregate on performance of asphalt micro-surfacing

Huge amounts of waste glass are produced every year in China, which brings great pressure on the environment. Meanwhile, a large number of natural aggregates are required for highway construction every year. In this study, it is intended to prepare asphalt micro-surfacing materials using waste glass as aggregate and evaluate their performance. The morphology of basalt and waste glass was quantitatively analyzed through aggregate image measurement system to characterize the morphological differences. In addition, the wet stripping test, wet track abrasion test, wheel load test, sand patch test and British pendulum test were used to investigate the resistance to the action of water, the wear performance, rutting resistance and skid resistance of asphalt micro-surfacing mixtures. The results indicate that the two-dimensional (2D) form of waste glass is more abundant than that of basalt, and as the content of waste glass increases, the British pendulum number (BPN) value and the texture depth (TD) value of micro-surfacing mixtures increase, which means that the addition of waste glass can improve the skid resistance ability of micro-surfacing mixtures to some extent. The abrasion loss, lateral and vertical displacement are all increased after replacing basalt with waste glass due to its brittleness and weak bonding. Considering the feasibility of mechanical properties, it is recommended that the maximum volume amount of fine waste glass and coarse waste glass should be less than 15% and 10%, respectively. The potential use of waste glass can alleviate the overconsumption of natural resources and is a good choice for applying in micro-surfacing pavement materials.

Evaluation of the airport runway flexible pavement macro-texture using digital image processing technique (DIPT)

ABSTRACT In this paper, we have explored and compared different digital image processing techniques on 2D Images of asphalt pavement for evaluating the macro-texture. Compared to the conventional tests, image processing provides a fast, reliable, and low-cost method with less computational complexity. The images were acquired using a digital camera on a fixed tripod at one angle (90°). We have studied three main digital image processing methods: Butterworth band-pass filter, edge pixels count and fuzzy logic edge detection. The derived parameters were compared with the measured mean texture depth using the sand patch test that was conducted at the same spots where images were captured in the airfield. In our analysis, both regression models of edge pixel count and fuzzy logic edge detection methods showed a good correlation (R 2 = 0.75; 0.76) with MTD data.

An Investigation of the Relationship among Skid Resistance, Mean Texture Depth and Abrasion Resistance for Different Macrotextures of Concrete Pavements

Road accidents are one of the ten major causes of death in the world. Lack of enough friction and skid resistance of the pavement surface are known as important factors in traffic accidents. In this study, to evaluate the relationship between skid resistance and pavement surface macrotexture, five methods of creating macrotexture on concrete pavements were used. Sand Patch test, British Pendulum and Wide Wheel Abrasion tests were employed to obtain mean texture depth, skid resistance and abrasion resistance of the surface, respectively. Results showed that brushing on fresh concrete surface (parallel or perpendicular to the traffic direction) can improve frictional properties of pavement surface, drastically. This method increased British Pendulum Number (BPN) and friction coefficient by 32% and 38% (in average), respectively. Friction coefficient of parallel brushing was quite similar to perpendicular (0.2% discrepancy), while its abrasion resistance was 4% higher. Hence, as a finding, parallel brushing is the most recommended texturing technique in respect to friction. Generally, concrete pavement texturing decreases surface abrasion resistance, but burlap dragging improved this index by 2.5%. Nevertheless, burlap dragging results could be deceptive due to the high sensitivity to initial setup conditions. In other words, measurement scale of the studied testing procedures are small in respect to the scale of protuberances caused by burlap dragging method.

A portable measurement system for pavement surface macrotexture – a case study in China

ABSTRACT This study proposes a portable measurement system (PS) for pavement surface macrotexture, which improves the current detection technology and provides the necessary support for maintenance and evaluation works on urban roads, newly built roads, parking, footpath, tunnels, bicycle lanes, and short distance roads. The system can obtain the elevation values through a high precision laser sensor and a data acquisition card. Next, the outliers of natural elevation values are screened and interpolated by a statistical test method, and then the corrected data are filtered by an improved Kalman filter algorithm. Finally, the mean profile depth (MPD) is calculated based on the standard ASTM E1845-15. The replication experiments, the correlation experiments with sand patch test (SPT), and the comparative experiment with vehicle laser profiler (VLP) are carried out on 20 test sections. The results show that the variation coefficients of PS are less than 5%, the correlation indexes with SPT are more than 0.928, the mean square errors and the mean absolute percentage errors of PS are less than 0.0032 and 4.98%, respectively. Meanwhile, the conversion models of MPD with mean texture depth (MTD) are established to realise that the direct estimation of MTD data utilising MPD data for different pavement types.

Avaliação das relações entre propriedades de forma de agregados, compactação, parâmetros do esqueleto mineral e textura de revestimentos asfálticos aeroportuários a partir do Processamento Digital de Imagens (PDI)

Este trabalho busca contribuir, na fase de projeto, para a previsão de macro e microtextura de misturas asfálticas aeroportuárias, relacionando-as com propriedades de forma dos agregados, métodos de compactação e parâmetros do esqueleto mineral. Para tanto, foi validado o uso do Processamento Digital de Imagens (PDI), a partir do equipamento AIMS2, cujas avaliações de macro e microtextura apresentam correspondência satisfatória com o ensaio de Mancha de Areia (MA) e a textura superficial da matriz pétrea, respectivamente. Observou-se que o aumento do Grau de Compactação (GC) e a utilização de rolos tandem provocam uma redução na macrotextura e uma melhoria nas características do esqueleto mineral. Além disso, a compactação em laboratório pode dar suporte à previsão da macrotextura em campo, porém a microtextura pode ser melhor prevista a partir da análise isolada da textura superficial dos agregados, sendo necessário para isso o desenvolvimento de correspondências entre classificações estatísticas e físicas.

Avaliação da drenabilidade de pavimentos asfálticos em Barra do Garças, Mato Grosso, Brasil

No que se refere às condições de segurança dos pavimentos, a drenabilidade merece atenção pois expressa a facilidade ou a dificuldade da ocorrência do fenômeno de hidroplanagem. Na presente pesquisa buscou-se estudar a drenabilidade de pavimentos urbanos avaliando a capacidade drenante de uma superfície pavimentada com concreto betuminoso usinado a quente (CBUQ) e outra em tratamento superficial duplo com capa selante (TSD), com um drenômetro construído seguindo as orientações de Lima e Dalla Riva (2014). Com os dados de vazão média para cada estação avaliados juntamente com os dados do ensaio de mancha de areia obtidos por Domingues (2018), foi possível obter uma equação que relaciona os resultados de drenabilidade com a textura do pavimento. Ao correlacionar essa equação ajustada, com os intervalos definidos por Pasquet (1968 apud CUBAR; DALLA ROZA, 2015), a Rua Coronel Elias Galvão recapeada com CBUQ, apresentou uma textura superficial média, indicada para vias com velocidade no intervalo de 80 a 120 km/h e o revestimento com TSD da Rua Presidente Kennedy foi classificado como muito grosseiro ou muito aberto, indicado para casos especiais que consistem em áreas com alto risco de hidroplanagem. Apesar de não apresentarem valores de drenabilidade (macrotextura) ideais segundo o Departamento Nacional de Infraestrutura de Transportes (DNIT), as condições das pistas avaliadas não oferecem risco à segurança do usuário, uma vez que são destinadas ao tráfego urbano.

Pavement texture characterisation using wavelets analysis in relation to pendulum skid tester

ABSTRACT Pavement texture is an important characteristic affecting user safety and satisfaction. Despite the large number of studies on pavement texture, there is still a need to further explore the models relating texture to tyre-pavement interaction. In this study, 29 cores were extracted from 15 different pavement surfaces and tested in the laboratory by Ohio department of transportation. The data set includes high density texture scans, modified mean texture depth (MMTD) values estimated using a modified sand patch test, and friction measurements acquired using dry and wet British pendulum (BP) testes. The texture scans were characterised using the mean profile depth (MPD) and wavelets energy. The correlation between MPD values and the coefficients of friction (COF) estimated using BP tests were not as strong as the correlation between the wavelet energies and the wet and dry COFs. Statistically significant models were derived using the wavelet energies to predict the MMTD (R 2 = 0.94) as well as the dry and wet COF (R 2 Dry = 0.49/R 2 Wet = 0.60). The principle component analysis was used to decorrelate the wavelet energies and overcome the multicollinearity, while the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator was used to reduce the number of variables in the model.