Sample Values Research Articles

Investigation of Unsaturated Soil Hydraulic Properties for Subgrade Improvement using Marble Dust Waste

Introduction The distribution of suction, which has implications for seepage and shear strength, plays a crucial role in determining the stability of unsaturated soil. The Air Entry Value (AEV) and Residual Water Contents (RWC) change over time to create the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC), which is very important for figuring out how the suction is distributed. During a flood occurrence, the subgrade becomes inundated with water, leading to adverse effects on the AEV and RWC of the subgrade. Consequently, the performance of the subgrade is diminished. This study focuses on the use of Marble Dust Waste (MDW) as an addition to the subgrade to improve the strength of the subgrade. Aims This study aims to investigate the variations in air AEV in relation to the optimal MDW in unsaturated soil found in Malaysia. Methods The study uses control samples and soil that has been mixed with different amounts of MDW: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%. The SWCC is generated using the pressure plate extractor device. Results The results indicate a significant increase in the AEV for the mixed soil sample when compared to the control sample. While the soil-MDW mixture containing 5% of this material has an AEV value of 23 kPa, the control sample's value is 10 kPa. Conclusion The findings of the study suggest that the utilization of MDW yields a beneficial influence on the AEV, hence potentially improving the performance of the subgrade. The researchers aim to evaluate the potentially dangerous waste and convert it into a substance that is appropriate for engineering applications. This study provides empirical evidence that aligns with the objectives outlined in Chapter 8 of the 12th Malaysia Plan for the period 2021–2025. The topic under discussion pertains to environmental sustainability, specifically focusing on enhancing the ability to withstand the adverse effects of climate change and disasters, as well as the Green Technology Master Plan Malaysia 2017–2030, with a specific emphasis on Chapter 6, which addresses the issue of waste management.

Analyzing Temperature Distribution Patterns on the Facing and Backside Surface: Investigating Combustion Performance of Flame-Retardant Particle Boards Using Aluminum Hypophosphite, Intumescent, and Magnesium Hydroxide Flame Retardants.

Particle boards are manufactured through a hot pressing process using wood materials (natural polymer materials) and adhesive, which find common usage in indoor decorative finishing materials. Flame-retardant particleboard, crucial for fire safety in such applications, undergoes performance analysis that includes assessing temperature distribution across its facing surface and temperature increase on the backside surface during facade combustion, yielding critical insights into fire scenario development. In this study, a compact flame spread apparatus is utilized to examine the flame retardancy and combustion behavior of particle boards, with a specific emphasis on the application of cost-effective flame retardants, encompassing aluminum hypophosphite (ALHP), an intumescent flame retardant (IFR) comprising ammonium polyphosphate (APP), melamine (MEL), and Dipentaerythritol (DPE), alongside magnesium hydroxide (MDH), and their associated combustion characteristics. The D300°C values, representing the vertical distance from the ignition point (IP) to P300°C (the temperature point at 300 °C farthest from IP), are measured using a compact temperature distribution measurement platform. For MDH/PB, APP + MEL + DPE/PB, and ALHP/PB samples, the respective D300°C values of 145.79 mm, 117.81 mm, and 118.57 mm indicate reductions of 11.11%, 28.17%, and 27.71%, compared to the untreated sample's value of 164.02 mm. The particle boards treated with ALHP, IFR, and MDH demonstrated distinct flame-retardant mechanisms. MDH/PB relied on the thermal decomposition of MDH to produce MgO and H2O for flame retardancy, while APP + MEL + DPE/PB achieved flame retardancy through a cross-linked structure with char expansion, polyphosphate, and pyrophosphate during combustion. On the other hand, ALHP/PB attained flame retardancy by reacting with wood materials and adhesives, forming a stable condensed P-N-C structure. This study serves as a performance reference for the production of cost-effective flame-resistant particleboards and offers a practical method for assessing its fire-resistant properties when used as a decorative finishing material on facades in real fire situations.

Centralized Protection of Networked Microgrids with Multi-Technology DERs

The structure and connections in networked microgrids consisting of two or more interconnected microgrids is influenced by the dynamic behaviors of power markets, the demand and supply interactions between market participants, and the possibility of operating in the grid-connected or islanded modes. Protection zones in the above-mentioned scenarios are dynamic and should not be determined a priori. Also, fault currents will vary depending on the operating modes, online or offline status of Distributed Energy Resources (DERs), variation of solar irradiation or wind speed, etc. This paper proposes a Centralized Intelligent Station-Level Protection (CISP) approach for the protection of various electric power equipment technologies in networked (interconnected) microgrids using adaptive protective relaying algorithms and a network theory-based zone selection algorithm. The proposed CISP approach utilizes wide area IEC 61869-9 Sampled Values (SVs) measurements and IEC 61850 Generic Object-Oriented Substation Events (GOOSE) messages, intelligently determines the protection zones, and automatically selects the protection algorithms to use in each of the protection zones based on the prevailing system topology and operating conditions. The effectiveness of the proposed CISP approach is demonstrated through real-time simulations using the RTDS®. The results obtained were promising for the various system configurations, operating conditions, and fault conditions considered.

Practical Implementation of Multithreaded Communication Protocols in Modern Protection Relays

Microprocessor-based protection relays that provide reliable and fast responses to abnormal conditions are of paramount importance to electrical grids. Modern numerical relays constitute communication protocols to facilitate data exchange among protection devices. Though it has become an integral part of electrical substation devices, there has not been any significant article that puts forth a detailed description of the preemptive multithreading implementation of multiple communication protocols for protection relays. Hence, this article is aimed at designing a preemptive multithreading system comprising IEC 61850 Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS), Generic Object-Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE), and Sampled Values (SV) along with Modbus TCP/IP and IEC 60870-5-104 communication protocols for protection relays. Latest products from prominent manufacturers of protection relays adopt preemptive multithreading on a real-time Linux operating system. In this work, the designed multi-protocol communication system is implemented on a real-time embedded Linux-based cortex-A7 core of the STM32MP157D-DK1 device. The designed system is verified by conducting an interoperability test with ABB REF615 and Thytronic NA11 protection relays.

A novel hybrid cybersecurity scheme against false data injection attacks in automated power systems

The conventional power systems are evolving as smart grids. In recent times cyberattacks on smart grids have been increasing. Among different attacks, False Data Injection (FDI) is considered as an emerging threat that has significant impact. By exploiting the vulnerabilities of IEC 61850 Generic Object-Oriented Substation Events (GOOSE) and Sampled Values (SV) attackers can launch different FDI attacks. In this paper, a real-time set up capable of simulating FDI on GOOSE and SV protocols is developed to evaluate the impact of such attacks on power grid. IEC 62351 stipulates cybersecurity guidelines for GOOSE and SV, but only at communication or Information Technology (IT) level. Hence there is a need to develop a holistic security both at IT and Operation Technology (OT) level. In this regard, a novel sequence content resolver-based hybrid security scheme suitable to tackle FDI attacks on GOOSE and SV is proposed. Furthermore, the computational performance of the proposed hybrid security scheme is presented to demonstrate its applicability to the time critical GOOSE and SV protocols.

Use of synchronized vector measurements technology for perform relay protection functions

RELEVANCE. Recently, along with the initial scope of synchronized vector measurements (synchrophasor) technology associated with Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS), more and more attention is paid to expanding the scope of this technology. Digital substations are one of the places for generating synchrophasor signals, at the same time, synchrophasor data are proposed to be used for the purposes of relay protection and automation at the digital substations itself, which will facilitate the construction of centralized relay protection systems at the substation. THE PURPOSE. Consider the use of synchrophasor technologies at a digital substation of the fourth type, as a replacement for Sampled Values (SV) signals. Consider additions to the standard set of synchrophasor signals necessary for the operation of various relay protections at a digital substation. Perform an analysis of the accuracy of calculating the synchrophasor when the frequency of the controlled current and voltage changes relative to the nominal value, when higher harmonics appear in the measured signal. Develop a pre-computation technique for relay protection algorithms. METHODS. When solving the problem, the method of calculating the total measurement error of the synchrophasor TVE (Total Vector Error) was used - a value that characterizes the deviation of the amplitude and phase of the measured vector from their specified values. CONCLUSION. The use of synchrophasor signals with the necessary additions for the operation of relay protection reduces the load on the digital network of the digital substation, simplifies the operation of relay protection algorithms. Calculations have shown that the measurement errors of synchrophasor do not go beyond the specified parameters. The proposed methods of precomputation allow to speed up the work of relay protection algorithms.

IEC 61850-9-2 based module for state estimation in co-simulated power grids

<p><span lang="EN-US">This paper presents a research context on the virtualization of phasor measurement units (PMUs) and real-time power grids simulation with state estimation. In this research, real-time simulation is introduced to use powerful features for validating state estimation solutions with PMUs. Virtual and online measurement equipment are reviewed in this manuscript to develop an innovative integration of the OpenPMU incorporated with a real-time simulation power grid and additional virtualized PMUs. The implementation of the platform has useful features within the infrastructure that allows the user to reproduce a detailed modeled power grid with simulation software. The use of real-time simulation tools brings several possibilities for improving testing and prototype assessment with higher precision in different applications. In this case, 2 tests power systems are evaluated by realistic integration of IEC61850-9-2 data utilization to observe the performance of a customized state estimation approach. The study implements a versatile methodology for commissioning OpenPMU devices, interacting simultaneously with additional virtual PMUs within the same simulation through sampled values (SV) to validate the measurement frames and assess the estimation with the generated data. Finally, the proposed work identifies the potential of virtualizing PMUs and the features of the OpenPMU applied to state estimation in conjunction with real-time simulation data.</span></p>

Sampled Value Attack Detection for Busbar Differential Protection Based on a Negative Selection Immune System

Considering a variety of sampled value (SV) attacks on busbar differential protection (BDP) which poses challenges to conventional learning algorithms, an algorithm to detect SV attacks based on the immune system of negative selection is developed in this paper. The healthy SV data of BDP are defined as self-data composed of spheres of the same size, whereas the SV attack data, i.e., the nonself data, are preserved in the nonself space covered by spherical detectors of different sizes. To avoid the confusion between busbar faults and SV attacks, a self-shape optimization algorithm is introduced, and the improved self-data are verified through a power-frequency fault-component-based differential protection criterion to avoid false negatives. Based on the difficulty of boundary coverage in traditional negative selection algorithms, a self-data-driven detector generation algorithm is proposed to enhance the detector coverage. A testbed of differential protection for a 110 kV double busbar system is then established. Typical SV attacks of BDP such as amplitude and current phase tampering, fault replays, and the disconnection of the secondary circuits of current transformers are considered, and the delays of differential relay operation caused by detection algorithms are investigated.

An Effective Security Scheme for Attacks on Sample Value Messages in IEC 61850 Automated Substations

The trend of transforming substations into smart automated facilities has led to their swift digitalization and automation. To facilitate data exchange among equipment within these substations, the IEC 61850 standard has become the predominant standard. However, this standardization has inadvertently made these substations more susceptible to cyberattacks, which is a significant concern given the confidential information that is transmitted. As a result, cybersecurity in substations is becoming an increasingly critical topic. IEC 62351 standard provides guidelines and considerations for securing the IEC 61850 messages to mitigate their vulnerabilities. While securing Generic Object-Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) messages has received considerable attention in literature, the same level of scrutiny has not been applied to Sampled Value (SV) messages despite their susceptibility to cyberattacks and similar frame format. This paper presents the impact of replay and masquerade attacks on SV messages. It also develops a scheme for securing SV messages against these attacks. Due to high sampling rate and time critical nature of SV messages, the time complexity of security scheme is critical for its applicability to SV messages. Hence, in this work, SV emulators have been developed in order to send these modified secure SV messages and investigate their timing performance. The results show that the proposed scheme can mitigate replay and masquerade attacks on SV messages while providing the necessary high sampling rate and stringent timing requirements.

Improving the properties of kenaf reinforced polypropylene composite by alkaline treatment

Natural fibre composites are widely utilized to make composite materials like textiles, furniture, cars, and buildings. This is due to the material's qualities, which include lightweight, high strength, and low density. Considering that it can grow in a variety of climates, kenaf fibre is one of the natural fibres that can be used in composite materials. However, the high hydrophilic behavior of kenaf fibre presents a challenge. Consequently, alkaline treatment was used to enhance the kenaf-reinforced polypropylene composite's characteristics. Both extrusion and injection molding were used to produce the composite. A composite without the alkaline treatment was also produced so that the outcomes could be compared. The proportion of used kenaf fibres to polypropylene was 170:30. (g). Thermal analysis, melt flow index (MFI), and water absorption testing was conducted on the composite material. Tensile, flexural, and impact testing were then used to determine the mechanical characteristics of the composite. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to evaluate the composite. The treated sample's tensile strength was determined to be 0.003 MPa, while the untreated sample's value was 0.002 MPa. Flexural strength increased between the treated sample (6545.49 MPa) and the untreated sample (6405.56 MPa). The treated sample's impact strength was 59.26 J/m as compared to 48.97 J/m for the untreated sample. The results of every test conducted so far have demonstrated that the alkaline-treated composite has better physical and mechanical properties than the untreated.

Automated Cybersecurity Tester for IEC61850-Based Digital Substations

Power substations are the crucial nodes of an interconnected grid, serving as the points where power is transferred from the transmission/distribution grids to the loads. However, interconnected cyberphysical systems and communication-based operations at substations lead to many cybersecurity vulnerabilities. Therefore, more sophisticated cybersecurity vulnerability analyses and threat modeling are required during productization phases, and system hardening is mandatory for the commercialization of products. This paper shows the design and methods to test the cybersecurity of multicast messages for digital substations. The proposed vulnerability assessment methods are based on the semantics of IEC61850 Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) and Sampled Value (SV), and cybersecurity features from IEC62351-6. Different case scenarios for cyberattacks are considered to check the vulnerabilities of the device under test (DUT) based on the IEC62351-6 standard. In order to discover security vulnerabilities in a digital substation, the proposed cybersecurity tester will generate malicious packets that compromise the regular functionality. The results show that the proposed cybersecurity testing module is able to detect potential vulnerabilities in multicast messages and the authentication methods (e.g., message authentication code) of multicast communications. Both commercial and simulated devices are used for the case studies.

Fault Diagnosis Method of Intelligent Substation Protection System Based on Gradient Boosting Decision Tree

In order to improve the efficiency of the devices’ fault diagnosis of the protection systems of intelligent substation, a fault diagnosis method based on a gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) was proposed. Using the integrated alarm information, the device self-checking information, the link information of generic object-oriented substation event (GOOSE) and sampled value (SV) and the sampling value information generated during the fault of the protection system, the fault feature information set is constructed. According to different fault characteristics, the protection system faults are classified into simple faults and complex faults to improve the diagnosis efficiency. Using GBDT training rules, a fault diagnosis model of protection system based on GBDT is established and fault diagnosis steps are given. This study takes a 110 kV intelligent substation in southern China as an example, to verify the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed fault diagnosis method, and compared it with the existing methods in terms of the accuracy. The diagnostic accuracy in the case of false alarms and the case of multiple faults are verified. The results show that the method can meet the practical engineering application.

Towards a standardisation for digital inputs and outputs of protection functions in IEC 60255 series

Fully digitalized substations using IEC 61850 process bus are being introduced all over the world. Numerous utilities have featured pilot projects, demonstrators or even industrial scale deployment of these Fully Digital Protection, Automation and Control Systems (FD-PACS). Product standards such as profiles for Instrument Transformers have been developed and published (IEC 61869-6 and IEC 61869-9 by TC 38—Instrument Transformers). This raises the question about the standards for digitally interfaced protection functions. In 2016, IEC TC 95 (Measuring relays and protection equipment) charged a working group to investigate this subject and to elaborate recommendations concerning requirements and testing of protection IED with digital inputs and outputs for protection standards (IEC 60255-1xx series). For protection functions, publisher/subscriber based data streams are supposed to comply with IEC 61850 and IEC 61869 standards. This holds in particular for Sampled Values (SV) representing energising inputs of the protection function, and is also applicable to Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) which can be used for input or output of protection functions. Quality attributes of published data depend on the operational and connection status of the function and the hosting IED. In addition, protection functions have to take into account the information regarding the time synchronisation of the received SV and other parameters. This paper gives an overview of these features and the proposed way to take them into account in the IEC 60255 standard series. It describes the progress of WG 2 and relates it to existing standardization documents.

Effect of VLAN configuration on IEC 61850 sampled values

IEC 61850, the standard for communication in power utility, has solved the interoperability problems between different vendors in substation communication networks (SCNs). However, most studies on SCN that use IEC 61850 were conducted using computer-based simulations or commercial equipment with fixed functions. In this study, an experiment on an SCN was conducted using real equipment such as a network switch, Raspberry Pi, and a mini PC. A cyclic data model was used for the traffic generation of sampled values (SVs) according to IEC 61850. The effect of applying a virtual local area network (VLAN) in the SCN on the transfer time and throughput of the SV frames was measured. In addition, when using IEEE 1588 in the time synchronization process, it was verified that the clock offset remained unaffected irrespective of the use of VLANs or changes in the sampling frequency. The experimental results can serve as guidance for the actual planning and construction process of SCNs.

Design of a Substation Secondary Equipment-Oriented Error Prevention System Using Wireless Communication Technology and Edge Node Cooperation

In order to solve the error prevention problem of secondary equipment in intelligent substations, this paper designs the Substation Secondary Equipment- (SSE-) oriented error risk Prevention, Control, and Management (P&C&M) system. Firstly, the basic principle of SSE error prevention is reviewed. The SSE model is expanded based on the existing microcomputer error prevention system’s Substation Primary Equipment (SPE). Thereupon, the SSE status acquisition device is designed, and the overall architecture is implemented for SSE error prevention. Secondly, edge-node cooperation is analyzed along with the specific architecture of the edge gateway. Finally, the wireless communication network is designed based on the edge gateway. The delay and flow of different data streams are compared, and the error proof verification mechanism is introduced into SSE. The numerical results corroborate that when the Sampled Value (SV) traffic exceeds 32 Mbps, the maximum delay exceeds the specified delay (3 MS). The average flow of the Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS) message is 90 kbps, which can meet the requirements of the intelligent substation. The delay of star networking is higher than that of ring networking. Meanwhile, the proposed network analyzer has a measured flow closer to the calculated flow of SSE. In the 60-hour accuracy statistics, the proposed SSE-oriented error P&C&M system reaches an accuracy as high as 84%. Therefore, the proposed SSE-oriented error P&C&M has strong feasibility. The outcome provides a reference for the intelligent development of error prevention of secondary equipment in intelligent substations.

Phasor Measurement Unit With Digital Inputs: Synchronization and Interoperability Issues

In recent years, the electrical substations are experiencing a rapid transition towards a fully digital measurement infrastructure, in terms of data acquisition, storage and processing. The IEC Std 61850-9-2 defines the data format, also known as Sampled Value (SV), to be employed by instrument transformers, merging units, and controller devices. In this scenario, it is reasonable to expect that also Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) will be directly connected with digital instrument transformers and will be required to process directly the SV data stream. In this paper, we present the design and development of a stand-alone PMU based on digital inputs. The prototype has been characterized in terms of estimation accuracy and enriched with a novel functionality that allows for monitoring the time quality of the SV data stream. In this way, the device truly becomes an Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) that guarantees higher interoperability as well as a more robust management of sporadic synchronization issues. The proposed results confirm the potential of SV-based PMUs, and highlight the possibility of further enhancement for synchrophasor measurements based on digital inputs only.

Real-Time B-Spline Interpolation for Harmonic Phasor Estimation in Power Systems

The fundamental component synchrophasors are widely used nowadays, based on the use of Phasor Measurement Units (PMU), in several applications in electrical power systems. For the advancement of monitoring technology, harmonic synchrophasor estimation is still a challenge. To make it possible, it is necessary to correctly estimate the harmonic phasor (magnitude and phase of each harmonic component), mainly in scenarios with frequency deviations and noise. In this context, the present paper proposes the use of B-Spline based interpolation as a preprocessing algorithm for the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The performance is evaluated in terms of Total Vector Error (TVE) considering the tests proposed by the IEEE C37.118.1 and IEC 60255-118-1 standards and compared with four different harmonic phasor estimation methods, the HPE, SIFE, TFT and FT FIR. The proposed method can provide a TVE below 1% for all harmonic phasors, from the first to the fiftieth order, under significant frequency deviation. Also, for real time validation, the proposed method was implemented in an industrial computer as a software routine capable of processing the signals in real time. The signals are acquired by a commercial Merging Unit (MU) and the samples are published using the IEC 61850 Sampled Values (SV) protocol.

Properties of HPT-Processed Large Bulks of p-Type Skutterudite DD0.7Fe3CoSb12 with ZT > 1.3

The influence of shear strain on the microstructural, physical, and mechanical properties was studied on large bulk samples (diameter: 30 mm, thickness: 1 or 8 mm), which were consolidated by high-pressure torsion (HPT) from a commercial powder DD0.7Fe3CoSb12. Particularly, the thick sample (mass �53 g) allowed measuring the thermoelectric (TE) properties with respect to various orientations of the specimen in the sample. All data were compared with those of a hot-pressed (HP) reference sample, prepared with the same powder. Transmission electron microscopy, as well as X-ray powder diffraction profile analyses, Hall measurements, and positron annihilation spectroscopy, supported these investigations. Furthermore, synchrotron data for the temperature range from 300 to 825 K were used to evaluate the changes in the grain size and dislocation density as well as the thermal expansion coefficient via the change in the lattice parameter during heating. In addition, hardness and direct thermal expansion measurements of the HPT samples were performed and compared with the HP reference sample's values. With the increase of the shear strain from the center to the rim of the sample, the electrical resistivity becomes higher, whereas the thermal conductivity becomes lower, but the Seebeck coefficient remained almost unchanged. For the thin as well as thick samples, the enhanced electrical resistivity was balanced out by a decreased thermal conductivity such that the maximum ZT values (ZT = 1.3-1.35 at 856 K) do not vary much as a function of the shear strain throughout the sample, however, all ZTs are higher than that of the HP sample. The thermal-electric conversion efficiencies are in the range of 14-15 (for 423-823 K). With similar high ZT values for the n-type skutterudites, fabricated in the same fast and sustainable way, these p- and n-type skutterudites may serve as legs for TE generators, directly cut from the big HPT bulks. ©

Virtual Digital Substation Test System and Interoperability Assessments

Interoperability testing and analysis tools provide a means for achieving and assuring the integrity of multivendor intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) data exchanges. However, the testing and analysis are very time consuming and error prone, and these problems worsen when a substation becomes large and complex during the engineering process, commission, replacement, maintenance, and extension. To address this challenge, this paper presents a virtual digital substation test system (VDSTS) with interoperability analysis tools for assessing and identifying the engineering challenges for the multiple-vendors digital substation. This VDSTS consists of three parts: (i) A virtual digital substation modelling for generating real-time digital substation primary plant operation and fault conditions, (ii) a standard IEC 61850-based substation protection, automation, and control (PAC) system architecture with multivendor IEDs and bay solutions, and (iii) multivendor Substation Configuration description Language (SCL) tools and in-house built data visualisation tool. The study focuses on the interoperability testing of sampled values (SV), generic object-oriented substation events (GOOSE), and manufacturing message specification (MMS) communication services, as defined in IEC 61850. The main issues identified are compatibility issues of SCL tools, protocol implementation issues, different information models, and application limitations. The outcomes will help utilities to reduce the risks associated with the general rollout of digital substations.

Investigation of an IEC 61850 standard-based process bus implementation of a protection and control scheme for parallelly connected transformers

PurposeThis paper aims to focus on the implementation of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61850–9-2 standard based process bus with merging units (MUs) and sampled values (SV) to improve the protection and control systems. The digital process interface is important to be included on the process bus level.Design/methodology/approachThe IEC 61850–9-2 process bus standard is not extensively used in regard to SV when the IEC 61850 standard is implemented by power utilities. Many protection and control intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are connected to a substation communication network, routers and switches using fibre-optic linked Ethernet. However, inductive current transformers (CTs) and voltage transformers (VTs) secondary circuits are still hardwired to the IEDs. The paper highlight issues with the copper wires for currents signals and how these issues can be eliminated by using the MUs and the SV protocol. The voltage regulator control IED of each transformer is required to regulate the voltage level of the secondary side bus bar it is connected to. All the regulating IEDs of parallel-connected transformers are required to communicate with each other to share information. They collectively control the bus bar voltage depending on the switching configuration of the parallel transformers.FindingsIt is shown that process bus information such as the high voltage switchgear status information of primary plant in the yard, can be used to improve the substation protection and control systems. The power transformer protection and voltage regulator control are focused on.Research limitations/implicationsThe deliverables of the research work can be applied in: The Centre for Substation Automation and Energy Management systems of the Department of Electrical Engineering, power utilities and other establishments using power systems and digital substations in the electrical supply industry. The research work on the thesis led to the development of a laboratory test-bench where students can learn and understand the basics of the IEC 61850–9-2 SVs principles. The test-bench components such as the IEDs, real-time digital simulator, standalone MUs and Ethernet equipment can be used for future research applications. The test-bench can be used to demonstrate during course work for students at the University, the basics of digital substations using a process bus network with IEDs, MUs and Ethernet equipment.Practical implicationsThe research work showed where lab equipment is getting outdated and future equipment will be required for research work in IEC 61850–9-2 process bus.Originality/valuePower utilities can benefit from implementing the IEC 61850 part 9–2 of the standard and by using MUs and other process interface information in substations. A cost reduction in high voltage equipment, substation installation and commissioning costs and better performance of protection and control system can be achieved.