Salting Process Research Articles

Upper Critical Solution Temperature Polymer Phase Transition as a Tool for the Control of Inorganic Salt Crystallization Process.

In this paper, the experimental research concerning the impact of the hydrophilic-hydrophobic transition of a polymer exhibiting the Upper Critical Solution Temperature (UCST) onto the crystallization process of inorganic salt is presented. A hypothesis was postulated that under favorable process conditions the sudden change of macromolecules properties and the resulting appearance of insoluble particles will induce the nucleation process of the salt. Since the transition point parameters may be precisely designed, the described mechanism would eliminate the stochastic nature of the crystallization process. Although performed experiments proved that the postulated process mechanism was incorrect, the presence of macromolecules had a significant impact on the crystallization course. The stochastic nature of the process was not eliminated; nevertheless, it seems that a specific point of nucleation was created which was independent of the cloud point temperature (TCP) of the polymer. Moreover, the surface morphology of crystals was changed.

UPLC-MS/MS-Based Rat Serum Metabolomics Reveals the Detoxification Mechanism of Psoraleae Fructus during Salt Processing.

Psoraleae Fructus (PF) is a botanical medicine widely used in Asian countries, of which salt products have higher safety and efficacy. However, the biological mechanism of the detoxification of salt-processing Psoraleae Fructus (SPF) has not yet been revealed. In this study, UPLC-MS/MS technology was used to explore the metabolic differences between SPF and PF in normal rats and reveal the mechanism of salt processing. The histopathological results of rat liver and kidney showed that the degree of liver and kidney injure in the SPF group was less than that in the PF group. The results of metabolomics showed that the detoxification mechanism of PF by salt processing might be related to glycerophospholipid metabolism, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis, arginine and proline metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism, and linoleic acid metabolism. PF-induced inflammation could be reduced by regulating the expression of metabolites to achieve the purpose of salt processing and detoxification. It included reducing the production of metabolites such as 1-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, tyrosine, arginine, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and phenylacetylglycine/hippuric acid ratio and upregulating the expression of metabolites such as creatine.

Microstructure and ion conductivity of Al‐LLZO solid electrolyte prepared by molten salt and cold sintering process

AbstractLi7La3Zr2O12 as a feasible solid electrolyte in all solid‐state batteries owns a highly active area of research due to the high Li+ conductivity and the high stability against the metallic Li. The Li6.25Al0.25La3Zr2O12 powders were synthesized by using the molten salt method to reduce calcination temperature. And cold sintering was served to densify the powders and obtain the solid‐state electrolyte, which could remedy the shortcoming of the conventional sintering. The influence of cold sintering temperature and holding time on the microstructures and electrochemical properties of Li6.25Al0.25La3Zr2O12 electrolyte were explored. The cubic block grains were observed that had a sufficient impact on the ionic conductivity. The results showed that the density and Li+ conductivity of Li6.25Al0.25La3Zr2O12 solid electrolyte were 3.31 g cm−3 and 9.13 μS cm−1, respectively. This work deepens the understanding of solid electrolytes prepared by the cold sintering process and shows the potential of this technology in terms of electrolytes preparation.

High-strength and high-conductivity in situ Cu–TiB2 nanocomposites

It is of significant interests to enhance the strength of Cu alloys while retaining their good electrical conductivity for broad applications. In situ incorporation of nano-phase into Cu alloys is a promising method for this objective. However, little success has been reported. In this study, we successfully fabricated in situ Cu–TiB2 nanocomposites by a molten salt processing and systematically studied their mechanical and electrical properties. During the processing, Al was used to react and introduce nano- and submicron-size TiB2 efficiently into the copper melt. Immiscible Fe was later added to recover the electrical conductivity through sequential solutionizing, hot rolling, and electrical conductivity-recovering. Detailed microstructure, phase, and electrical studies validate the feasibility of the proposed procedures to achieve high-strength and high-conductivity Cu(–Fe)-TiB2 nanocomposites. Cu-1 wt.% Fe-5 vol% TiB2 offers 554.3 MPa in ultimate tensile strength, 4.4% in ductility, and 62.4% IACS in electrical conductivity. The new method paves an effective way to synthesize and incorporate nano-phase into copper melt for high-performance Cu nanocomposites.

Synthesis of CuAl2O4 Nanoparticle and Its Conversion to CuO Nanorods

The molten salt approach was used to convert CuAl2O4 nanoparticles to CuO nanorods in this study. Molten hydroxide (NaOH) synthesis was chosen over molten salts (NaCl/KCl) for removing aluminium oxide from copper aluminate at low temperatures. The molten salt process is environmentally beneficial. Polymeric precursors were used to make nanosized copper aluminates. Alginic acid polymer is used to gel aqueous solutions of copper acetate and aluminium nitrate, yielding precursor after further heating. The precursor provides 14 nm nanosized copper aluminates after being heated at 900°C for 5 hours. XRD, FTIR, SEM, and TEM were used to characterize the nanosized copper aluminate powder. Solid state mixing and solution technique were used to investigate molten hydroxide treatment of spinel CuAl2O4. The products of the reaction were identified using XRD. FTIR and SEM are also used to analyze the sample. Using UV-DRS absorbance spectrum analysis, the optical characteristics of CuAl2O4 and CuO nanorods were examined. Using the Tauc plot method, the band gaps of CuAl2O4 and CuO were calculated to be 4.3 and 3.93 eV.

A Note about ʻFoulgo’ Salt Processing and its Role in the Livelihood of Dwelling People in Gabal Marra

The aim of this note was to outline the processing of a table-salt, locally known as “Foulgo salt” in Gabal Marra area, and highlighting its socio-economic impact on the livelihood of the mountain dwellers. Salt samples were procured from a local producer and were chemically analyzed in the laboratory of the Soil and Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum in August 2020. The preparation steps include: impregnation of soil by salt in the farm, collection and percolation of the soil and evaporation of the solute at home and yield of the salt. The salt is grey to pale brown in colour and has small crystals and readily dissolves in water. The salt is composed of 78.9% NaCl, 0.5 % Ca, 0.78 % Mg and traces of K. Its Ec is 19.97dS/m and TDS of 1280.8 ppm. The salt is used for human consumption and for various purposes. It is sold to get income and historically it was used for trade both as commodity and exchange currency. The salt is still produced at small scale, and its production is anticipated to continue for some time in response to the prevailing local demand

Prioritization of biological processes based on the reconstruction and analysis of associative gene networks describing the response of plants to adverse environmental factors

Methods for prioritizing or ranking candidate genes according to their importance based on specif ic criteria via the analysis of gene networks are widely used in biomedicine to search for genes associated with diseases and to predict biomarkers, pharmacological targets and other clinically relevant molecules. These methods have also been used in other f ields, particularly in crop production. This is largely due to the development of technologies to solve problems in marker-oriented and genomic selection, which requires knowledge of the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the formation of agriculturally valuable traits. A new direction for the study of molecular genetic mechanisms is the prioritization of biological processes based on the analysis of associative gene networks. Associative gene networks are heterogeneous networks whose vertices can depict both molecular genetic objects (genes, proteins, metabolites, etc.) and the higher-level factors (biological processes, diseases, external environmental factors, etc.) related to regulatory, physicochemical or associative interactions. Using a previously developed method, biological processes involved in plant responses to increased cadmium content, saline stress and drought conditions were prioritized according to their degree of connection with the gene networks in the SOLANUM TUBEROSUM knowledge base. The prioritization results indicate that fundamental processes, such as gene expression, post-translational modif ications, protein degradation, programmed cell death, photosynthesis, signal transmission and stress response play important roles in the common molecular genetic mechanisms for plant response to various adverse factors. On the other hand, a group of processes related to the development of seeds (“seeding development”) was revealed to be drought specif ic, while processes associated with ion transport (“ion transport”) were included in the list of responses specif ic to salt stress and processes associated with the metabolism of lipids were found to be involved specif ically in the response to cadmium.

Physicochemical study of dietary fiber methylcellulose and human intestinal bile salt micellar aggregates

The cellulose ether and bile salt mixed systems have a potential to alter the lipid digestion. The basic understanding of the aggregation process, interaction, and physicochemical properties of cellulose ether and bile salt is an essential topic of study. In this work, the interaction between simple dietary fiber methylcellulose (MC) and bile salt sodium deoxycholate (NaDC) has been studied using UV-Vis absorption, steady-state fluorescence intensity, fluorescence quenching, conductivity, light scattering, and zeta potential measurements. Fluorescence properties of hydrophobic probe pyrene were used to find the critical aggregation concentration (CAC), critical micellar concentration (CMC), and aggregation number (Nagg) of the MC/NaDC system. Using conventional conductivity method CAC, CMC, and thermodynamic parameters of micellization i.e. standard Gibbs free energy (∆Gmic0), standard entropy (∆Smic0), and standard enthalpy (∆Hmic0), was calculated to know the information regarding the nature of micellization of MC/NaDC mixed system. The size distribution and zeta potential study give an insight into MC/NaDC interaction before and after the CAC point. The strong hydrophobic interaction between cellulose ether MC and bile salt NaDC shows that this mixed system may have further implications in lipid digestion.

Evaluation of Health Effect of Gamma Radiation from Uburu and Okposi-Okwu Salt-Lakes in Ebonyi State, During Rainy and Dry Seasons

A comparative study of the gamma radiation in Uburu and Okposi-Okwu Salt-Lakes located in Ohaozara Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, during rainy and dry seasons was carried out using a hand-held RadEye G20–ER10 gamma survey meter and a geographical position system. Three samples were taken randomly from five different points of the two Salt-Lakes and their host communities during both seasons and their averages were recorded. An in-situ exposure rate measurements were used to evaluate the absorbed dose rate, the annual effective dose and the Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk. The results obtained were compared with the world average so as to determine the health risk to the studied environment. The mean exposure rate, absorbed dose rate (ADR), annual effective dose (AED), and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) from Uburu and Okposi-Okwu Salt-Lakes during rainy season were 0.139 µSv/h, 138.8 nGy/h, 0.170mSv/y and 0.596×10-3; 0.123 µSv/h, 121.8 nGy/h, 0.149mSv/y and 0.523×10-3 respectively. Also, the mean exposure rates, ADR, AED, and ELCR from Uburu and Okposi-Okwu Salt-Lake during dry season were 0.177 µSv/h, 176.6 nGy/h, 0.216mSv/y and 0.758×10-3; 0.174 µSv/h, 173.3 nGy/h, 0.213mSv/y and 0.746×10-3 respectively. All the assessed results are higher than the world standard value for the general public. These results showed that the studied areas are radiation contaminated. The results within the Salt Lake environment are higher than the results from their host communities. This may be attributed to the activities within the Salt Lake environment such as local salt processing. Also, the results from the two studied areas during dry season were higher than that of the rainy season.

Preliminary investigation of microplastics in the production process of sea salt sourced from the Bohai Sea, China, using an optimised and consistent approach

ABSTRACT In this study, we present a preliminary investigation of the characteristic changes in microplastic during the production process of sea salt in China. Five representative samples, including seawater, saturated brine, crude salt, coarse salt, and refined salt were successively collected from the production process of sea salt sourced from the Bohai Sea in China. The pretreatment method of microplastics was optimised and evaluated by the recovery rates of particle references. Microplastic characteristics in the five samples were investigated using consistent pretreatment, microscopic, and spectroscopic analyses. Results indicated that microplastics were present in every stage of sea salt production. During the “journey” of microplastics in salt production from seawater-to-seawater evaporation, to salt crystallisation, and external force processing, the abundance of microplastics with size ranging from 18 μm to 4936 μm increased substantially from 23 ± 8 to 413 ± 61 particles kg−1, while the proportion of larger microplastics (≥1000 μm) decreased from 33% to 9%. The results illustrate the effect of the production process on microplastic contamination of sea salt.

Consideration of the mechanical damage behavior of rock salt during calculation of infiltration-cracks in the edge zone of gas storage caverns

Underground storage in salt caverns is a preferred method for the intermediate storage of natural gas to cover seasonal fluctuation in consumption and commercial gas storage. The prove of the stability and tightness of the storage required for safe operation is continuously adapted to the current state of the art. For many years, an intensive scientific investigation has been carried out within the frame-work of repository research with continuous optimization of the rock mechanical modelling of the material behavior of rock salt. From the elaboration of the research results on the pressure-driven infiltration processes into the primarily non-permeable salt rock, it emerges that during gas storage operation, in addition to the areal infiltration, the formation of macroscopic infiltration-cracks in the cavern surrounding salt rock is to be expected as well. This thesis deals with the computational simulation of macroscopic infiltration-cracks within the scope of theoretical modelling of salt cavern behavior during gas storage, taking into account additional mechanical damage processes in the rock salt. On the basis of variational calculus, the infiltration fracture propagation will be evaluated, considering different model approaches in material behavior of the cavern surrounding rock salt mass. As a result of the present work, it should be noted that with regard to the propagation of infiltration-cracks in gas caverns, constitutive model approaches for the description of the mechanical damage and healing behavior of rock salt can be neglected for a conservative assessment.

Dried salted anchovy different processing methods: drying kinetics and modelling

Dried salted anchovy is processed with a combination of the salting and drying processes. Methods of salting and drying will determine the characteristics of the end product. The process of salting can be done by soaking (S) or boiling (B) in brine and drying can be done by mechanical drying (MD) or electric oven (OD). This study is aimed to determine the drying kinetics and mathematical models of dried salted anchovy processed with boiled salting and drying in the mechanical dryer (BMD), soaked salting and drying in the mechanical dryer (SMD) and boiled salting and drying in the oven (BOD). In the soaking treatment, fresh anchovy was soaked in 5% brine for 30 mins, while in boiling treatment, anchovy boiled in 5% brine for 10 mins. After the salting process was done, the anchovy was dried at 40°C for 3 hrs. The result has shown that BMD gives the highest drying constant. The page model is more suitable than other mathematical models because it has the highest R2 and the lowest SEE (Standard Error Estimates) value. The result of the effective diffusivity of BMD, SMD and BOD are 1.28067×10-10, 2.46685×10-10 , 1.80245×10-10. This research will contribute to the improvement of the drying and salting method to achieve a better quality of dried salted anchovies.

Cobalt nano-ferrite synthesized by molten salt process: structural, morphological and magnetic studies

Cobalt nano-ferrite synthesized by molten salt process: structural, morphological and magnetic studies

Characterization of Ambient Particulate Matters in an Industry-Intensive Area in Central Taiwan

Atmospheric particulate matters (PMs) were measured in an industry-intensive region in central Taiwan in order to investigate the characteristics and possible sources of PMs. The samplings were simultaneously conducted using a 10- and 3-stage Micro Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor (MOUDI) from 2017 to 2018. In this study, the characteristics of PMs in this region were evaluated by measuring the mass concentration of PMs and analyzing water-soluble ions and metallic elements, as well as dioxins. Additionally, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the potential sources of PMs. The results showed that the mean concentration of coarse (>1.8 μm), fine (0.1–1.8 μm), and ultrafine (<0.1 μm) particles were 13.60, 14.38, and 3.44 μg/m3, respectively. In the industry-intensive region, the size distribution of ambient particles showed a bi-modal distribution with a high concentration of coarse particles in the spring and summer, while fine particles were dominant in the autumn and winter. The most abundant water-soluble ions of PMs were NO3−, Cl−, and SO42−, while the majority of metallic elements were Na, Fe, Ca, Al, and Mg in different particle sizes. The results of Pearson’s correlation analysis for metals indicated that the particles in the collected air samples were related to the iron and steelmaking industries, coal burning, vehicle exhausts, and high-tech industries. The dioxin concentration ranged from 0.0006 to 0.0017 pg I-TEQ/Nm3. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the contribution to PMs was associated with sea salt, secondary pollutants, and industrial process.

Waste plastic derived Co3Fe7/CoFe2O4@carbon magnetic nanostructures for efficient dye adsorption

A mesoporous carbon nanostructure (MCN) with embedded Co3Fe7/CoFe2O4 magnetic nanoparticles is synthesized by a clean and low-cost ball-milling/molten salt processing approach, employing metal oxides and waste plastic materials, without the involvement of environmentally-problematic raw materials or products. The structure, morphology and magnetic properties of MCN are analyzed by a variety of techniques. A systematic investigation is conducted to evaluate the performance of this nanostructured material as regenerable adsorbent for the efficient removal of methyl orange (MO) and methylene blue (MB) dyes from their aqueous solutions at various conditions, in terms of the dye concentration, the adsorbent dosage and the pH level of the solution. The dye adsorption of MCN is in accordance with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isothermal model with an excellent monolayer adsorption capacity of 278 and 238 mg/g for MB and MO, respectively. Moreover, the material is characterized to be ferromagnetic with the Ms value of 17.9 emu/g, ensuring the facile separation of the exhausted adsorbent from the treated water. The adsorption performance of MCN can be regenerated, with an adsorption capacity of greater than 95% of the original performance, after five successive regeneration cycles.

Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Fish Sauce Prepared by Virgibacillus sp. Starter Cultures Addition and Reduced Salt Process

ABSTRACT Antioxidant activity and peptide profiles of fish sauce samples prepared under varied conditions, namely traditional process, starter culture addition, and a reduced salt process, were determined. Samples were desalted using the HiTrap column, resulting in fraction F1, F2, and F3. The commercial fish sauce (HS-Com) contained smaller molecular weight peptides, and low salt fish sauce (LS) contained higher ratio of large peptides. For F1, high salt fish sauce with Virgibacillus sp. starter culture (HS+Vir), showed the highest 2, 2ʹ-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) value. In contrast, the highest antioxidant activities were observed in the HS-Com in F3. The addition of Virgibacillus sp. with either full or reduced salt resulted in more antioxidant peptides. The de novo peptide sequencing revealed that proline (P) was predominantly found in the F1 fraction of LS, LS+Vir, and HS-Com. All samples were rich in glutamic acid (E).

Response of Salts in Saline Soil Using Different Irrigation Scheduling in Semi-Arid Zone of Pakistan

The salinity of soil is a crucial challenge for growers irrigating in semi-arid zones. To accomplish salinity, growers require information about salt's basis and processes of the salt mobility through the root zone. Soil salinity can be managed by exceptional irrigating farming practices including irrigation scheduling to leach down salts through the root zone. This study aimed at examining the salts movement in saline soil in a semi-arid region in Sindh, Pakistan. This field experiment was conducted during the summer of 2017 on a salt-affected land by using three irrigation treatments of canal water including T1 (7 day irrigation interval), T2 (14 day irrigation interval) and T3 (21 days irrigation interval) under 10, 9 and 8 cm depths of irrigation water, respectively. The texture of soil was silty clay loam having an electrical conductivity (EC) ranging from 7.73 to 20.69 dS/m. However, the pH of the soil ranged from 7.89 to 8.04. The findings of a two-way analysis of variance were consistent with the statistical examination of EC and pH data day- wise (7, 14 and 21 days) and depths-wise (10, 9 and 8 cm). Average reductions in the EC and pH of the soil were observed at 7 days interval and 10cm depth at P<0.05. Overall, the findings exhibited that, compared to the 14 and 21 day intervals, a 7 day irrigation interval was more effective in terms of salt leaching from the soil profile.
 

Technological and diffusion properties in the wet salting of beef assisted by ultrasound

The effects of the application of ultrasound and the content of NaCl in the brine on the technological and diffusion properties in the wet salting of beef were evaluated. Beef samples were immersed in brines containing different content of NaCl (100, 200 and 300 g of NaCl/L of water) and subjected to two different treatments: static brine (SB) and brine with ultrasound (US). Wet salting with ultrasound increased (P < 0.05) the NaCl content, reduced (P < 0.05) the denaturation temperature of myofibrillar proteins, reduced (P < 0.05) the water activity and did not affect (P > 0.05) the lipid oxidation of the meat when compared to samples treated in static brine (SB). The increase in the content of NaCl in the brine increased (P < 0.05) the substances reactive to thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) values of salted beef and reduced (P < 0.05) the intensity of lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*). None of the effects (P > 0.05) were significant for pH. Based on the results under the given operational conditions (600 W; 20 kHz), ultrasound is a technology with potential for accelerating the process of wet salting of beef, reducing the salting time and also providing technological advantages related to the properties of proteins.

Solvation of Potassium 5-Hydroxy Pentanoyl Trifluoroborate Salt in Aqueous Environment by Using FT-Raman and UV-Visible Spectra

The hydration process of potassium 5-hydroxypentanoyltrifluoroborate salt, K[C5H9BF3O2] and its 5-hydroxypentanoyltrifluoroborate [C5H9BF3O2]- anion have been studied by combining the experimental FT-Raman and ultraviolet-visible spectra in aqueous solution with hybrid B3LYP/6-311++G** calculations. Solvent effects have been considered with the self-consistent reaction field (SCRF) and solvation (SM) models. Here, the structures of [C5H9BF3O2].[H2O]n clusters of anion, with n from 1 to 5 implicit water molecules, were proposed in order to study the number of water molecules that could hydrate the anion. Calculations were performed in the gas phase and an aqueous solution to observe the effect of the medium on the dipole moment and volume values. Calculated solvation energies for all clusters were corrected by zero-point vibrational energy (ZPVE), non-electrostatic terms and by basis set superposition energy (BSSE). The dipole moment of salt in solution (10.19 D) suggests that the number of water molecules that could hydrate the anion vary between 3 and 4, in total agreement with the observed and predicted bands in the UV-Vis spectra for the salt and these two clusters in water between 180 and 400 nm. Comparisons among experimental and predicted Raman spectra show clearly the hydration effect because the bands attributed to OH, BF3 and C=O groups are shifted in solution, while, the predicted Raman spectra for all clusters in solution show strong changes in the intensities of many bands, in accordance with the corresponding experimental one. Evidently, the hydration occurs on the OH, BF3 and C=O groups.

Nanochitosan application on the production of less salt dried fish

The objective of this study was to produce less salt-dried fish by the treatment of chitosan nanoparticles added into saline solution during the salting process. The concentration of nano chitosan of 0.4%, 0.7%, and 1.0% was added into 20% saline solution combined with soaking time of 30 minutes, 60 minutes, and 90 minutes. Soaking fish in 20% saline solution for 3 hours in the salting process was performed as a comparison. Objective and subjective tests covers: salt content, total microbes (TPC), moisture and acid insoluble ash, and organoleptic were carried out to determine the characteristics of the final product. The results showed as follows: salt 13.4-16.71%; moisture 11.11-14.48 %; Acid Insoluble Ash 0.05-0.08%; Total Microbial 1.05x102 – 5.3x102 CFU/gram; and Organoleptic 8.2-8.73. Those values meet the requirements of the Indonesian National Standard. Based on the results, it can be concluded that 0.4% of nano chitosan in 20% saline solution combined with 30 minutes soaking time on salting process produce less salt dried fish successfully.