Salt For Human Consumption Research Articles

CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES OF SALT FARMING IN OCCIDENTAL MINDORO, PHILIPPINES

This study drew the profile of the salt farm owners and farmers in Occidental Mindoro, Philippines; their salt production characteristics in terms of salt farm size, material used for salt beds and intended use of the salt produced and post-harvest practices. It also identified the constraints and challenges faced by the salt farm owners and farmers. Key Informant Interview using an interview guide was used to gather data from 52 salt farm owners/farmers. Results of the study indicate that the salt farm owners and farmers are males, between 41-55 years old married and belong to large households. The salt production area is 10 hectares or less, clay (from Vigan) and stones are used to line the crystallizers, and salt produced include agricultural grade salt for the coconut fertilization, yellow quality raw salt for bagoong and dried fish production, cleaning purposes, green quality raw salt for human consumption, iodized salt for human consumption (table salt), washed and refined salt for human consumption (table salt) and food industries (chips, biscuits). Findings of the study also revealed that majority of the salt farmers did not own a warehouse to store their salt and used sacks to package the salt. It is recommended that the Occidental Mindoro Salt Industry Road Map be translated into reality by providing government support to the industry in the form of research and development projects and programs on salt production, post-harvest, logistics and marketing strategies, provision of loan facility to augment capitalization and encourage industry-academe and government line agencies collaboration for an inclusive Occidental Mindoro Salt Industry revitalization.

Qualidade físico-química de sal comercializado no Município de Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil

O sal é um ingrediente primordial na alimentação humana, mas sua qualidade deve ser avaliada. Objetivou-se avaliar a qualidade físico-química do sal de cozinha comercializado na cidade de Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil. Seis amostras comerciais de sal de cozinha refinado e três amostras de sal moído de diferentes marcas foram selecionadas aleatoriamente em supermercados locais. Os teores de massa, umidade, turbidez, iodo e cloretos em cloreto de sódio foram determinados. A massa das amostras encontrou-se em conformidade na maioria das amostras analisadas. Os teores de umidade, turbidez e iodo estavam acima do permitido pela legislação. Os teores de cloretos em cloreto de sódio estavam abaixo do exigido para todos os sais refinados e para o sal moído da amostra B. Todas as amostras coletadas estão fora dos padrões de qualidade de sal para consumo humano exigidos pela legislação.

Fluoride concentration in Peruvian salts determined with specific electrode by the direct method

According to the Peruvian legislation, salt for human consumption should contain 200-250 mg F/kg, but there is limited data showing whether this requirement is being accomplished. Aim: In this pilot study, we evaluated the fluoride concentration in samples of salt marketed in Lima, Peru, using a standardized protocol with ion-specific electrode by direct method (ISE). Methods: Seven 1 kg salt packages of four brands were purchased in two supermarkets of Lima. Six aliquots of each package were weighed and dissolved in the proportion of 0.025 g/mL of water. Duplicates of 1.0 mL of these solutions were mixed with 1.0 mL of TISAB II and fluoride concentration was determined with ISE calibrated with standards fluoride solutions ranging from 0.25 to 16.0 µg F/mL. The ionic strength of the standards was adjusted with p.a NaCL (25 mg/mL). In addition, triplicates of 15 g of each salt package were fractionated in a set of sieves (0.590 to 0.177 mm) to determine the homogeneity of fluoride concentration in salt. Results: In four packages the mean fluoride (mean±SD,n=6) concentration (mg F/kg) was in agreement to the Peruvian regulation (214.5±10.4; 221.8±14.3; 226.9±19.1 and 237.2±52.0 mg F/kg), but in 3 packages it was lower (145.2±7.9; 145.7±23.3 and 158.4±20.6 mg F/kg). Variability in fluoride concentration was observed within the same brand and among brands. Also, the fluoride concentration was not homogeneous in none of the salt samples, ranging from 72.0 to 1449.7 mg F/kg. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the manufacturing and sanitary surveillance of fluoridated salt in Peru should be improved.

AVALIAÇÃO DA ADEQUAÇÃO DO TEOR DE IODO EM AMOSTRAS DE SAL REFINADO E DE SAL GROSSO COMERCIALIZADO EM OURO PRETO-MG, BRASIL

Introduction : Salt iodization has been recommended as the primary public health measure for prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD), due to its safe application and satisfactory cost-benefit ratio (ou results). . Under Brazilian law, salt for human consumption should contain iodine in the proportion of 20mg to 60mg per kilogram of product. Thus, continuous monitoring and surveillance is needed to keep the level of iodine in salt within these limits. Objective : Iodization was assessed in samples of refined salt and rock salt in Ouro Preto-MG, Brazil. Material and Methods: Sixty-six samples from 16 different brands were collected; 40 of which were refined salt and 26, rock salt. As indicated in the Analytical Standards of the Adolfo Lutz Institute, iodine concentration was measured using a standard solution of sodium thiosulfate in triplicate samples. Results: Statistical analysis on the type of salt and on iodine concentration in the samples indicated that 7.5% of the refined salt samples, 53.85% of rock salt samples and 25.76% of all salt samples did not meet the Brazilian legislative requirements. Conclusion: Compared to previous studies, iodine levels in refined salt samples indicate improvement in the salt iodization monitoring, which is considered an effective public health action to prevent and control IDDs. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12957/demetra.2015.13481

Variation in iodine concentration of salt at the local level following national salt iodization in Ethiopia (804.31)

Ethiopia launched a salt iodization program in 2011. The objective of this study was to evaluate the concentration of iodine in salt 2 years after the national proclamation that all salt for human consumption should be iodized. Salt samples were collected from 193 randomly selected households in Sidama zone, southern Ethiopia. The study participants were from farming communities where more than two‐thirds of the families were subsistence farmers. Iodine concentration of salt was analyzed using a portable digital electronic iodine checker (WYD, UNICEF) and by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS). Correlation between the analyses was 0.69 (p<0.001). Mean (±SEM) iodine concentration using the digital iodine checker was 7.8 (8.0) ppm and by ICP‐MS was 9.8 (8.6) ppm. The recommended salt iodine concentration at the household level should be 15 to 40 ppm, but in this survey varied from 0 to 41.1 ppm; only 21% of households had >15 ppm. Salt samples from 10 retail shops and open markets had a mean iodine concentration of 5.3 (4.0) ppm with a range from 0 to 10.9 ppm which was far below the recommended retail level of 20‐40 ppm. The results indicate that salt may not be homogenously or adequately iodized and/or storage and handling may not be appropriate. Hence a strong monitoring strategy from production to household level for Ethiopia’s salt iodization program is of great importance.Grant Funding Source: Supported by Nestlé Foundation and Oklahoma State University

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of rural women from Sidama zone, southern Ethiopia concerning iodized salt, iodine and goiter (804.19)

Iodine deficiency remains a public health problem in Ethiopia and in the study area despite a proclamation in 2011 that all salt for human consumption should be iodized. A community‐based cross‐sectional study assessed prevalence of goiter and KAP of 193 randomly selected women. The mean (SD) age was 25.6 (8.1) years and the mean household size was 5.7 (2.1). Of the women 48.7% had no education, 17.6% knew some reading, 25.4% had attended or completed elementary school and 8.3% attended or completed high school. Goiter was assessed in 191 women by palpation; 23% had visible and an additional 33% had palpable goiter. Of the participants, 93.8% said they didn’t use iodized salt and 87.6% didn’t know the benefits of iodized salt. Of the 24 women who reported knowing the benefits of iodized salt, 23 said it prevents goiter but none mentioned cognitive effects. The women suggested causes of goiter to be drinking dirty water, drinking tap water, drinking rain water, but only two women said lack of iodine. The only apparent source of iodine for this population was iodized salt; however the salt contained minimal and inconsistent amounts of iodine. Lack of iodized salt may be further compounded by handling, storage, and cooking techniques. Although prevalence of goiter is high and visible in the community, knowledge of causes and prevention of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) is minimal. Education and monitoring programs are required to combat IDD in Ethiopia.Grant Funding Source: Supported by Nestlé Foundation and Oklahoma State University

Neonatal Age and Point of CareTSH Testing in the Monitoring of Iodine Deficiency Disorders: Findings from Western Uganda

Iodine deficiency is a major public health problem throughout Africa. Although salt for human consumption is said to contain adequate amounts of iodine in Uganda, iodine intake may not be optimal. We undertook a field study to assess the adequacy of iodine nutrition in western Uganda using on-site measurement methods of neonatal thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for monitoring the degree of iodine deficiency during pregnancy. The study design consisted of a prevalence study using the percentage of newborns between the ages of 3 and 7 days with TSH >5 mIU/L, measured with a point-of-care immunochromatographic TSH assay, as a surrogate marker of iodine deficiency. Five districts in western Uganda were selected for study on the basis of a past history of iodine deficiency. One thousand seventy-eight newborns from the five districts were sequentially enrolled in each separate district and tested between July 2007 and January 2008. The prevalence of TSH levels >5 mlU/L ranged from 20% to 32%. Neonates tested on or before the age of 3 days were more likely to have a TSH level >5 mlU/L than those tested beyond the age of three days (28.2% vs. 18.7%, p < 0.001). Assessing neonatal TSH levels in developing countries with a TSH assay method suitable for field use can be successfully used to screen for congenital hypothyroidism and to indirectly assess a population's iodine status. Based on the percentage of neonates with TSH values >5 mIU/L, presumptive iodine deficiency persists in western Uganda. This finding suggests that continued monitoring of iodine nutrition in the area surrounding the Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda and Congo is needed. Due to the progressive fall in the percent of TSH values >5 mIU/L from day three to day five of life, we conclude that TSH measurement earlier than day five of life in newborns at risk for iodine deficiency may be misleading. Guidelines for the use of neonatal TSH to monitor iodine nutrition should specify that TSH measurement take place no earlier than day five of life.