Salivary Oxytocin Research Articles

Salivary oxytocin after oxytocin administration: Examining the moderating role of childhood trauma

Although oxytocin administration influences behavior, its effects on peripheral oxytocin concentrations are mixed and derived from studies on healthy subjects. Additionally, trauma attenuates the behavioral effects of oxytocin, but it is unknown whether it also influences its effect on peripheral circulation. This study examined whether salivary oxytocin increased after oxytocin administration and whether trauma attenuated this effect. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects study in 100 male adolescents living in residential youth care facilities. Participants self-administered intranasally 24 IU of oxytocin and placebo (one week later) and provided a saliva sample before and 15 min after administration. Salivary oxytocin increased significantly after oxytocin administration, but this effect might be inflated by exogenous oxytocin reaching the throat. Trauma did not moderate this effect. Our findings suggest that trauma did not attenuate the effect of oxytocin administration on salivary oxytocin, but more robust methodologies are recommended to draw more solid conclusions.

Effects of Stroking on Salivary Oxytocin and Cortisol in Guide Dogs: Preliminary Results.

Simple SummaryOxytocin, a nonapeptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland, plays a peripheral role during labor, birth, and nursing. Since this role is well known nowadays, scientific interest in this hormone has shifted from its peripheral functions to its central functions, such as the onset of parental care, the regulation of social bonding, and modulation of the emotional state. For this final reason, this study intended to investigate the possible variations of salivary oxytocin induced by two different conditions: a positive condition (5 min of human–dog interaction) and a negative condition (5 min of isolation). Because oxytocin function is known to be affected by stress, salivary cortisol concentration was determined after both conditions and a stress–behavior assessment during the isolation phase was performed to further assess signs of distress. A significant increase in salivary oxytocin was observed only during the positive condition and, although no signs of distress were observed during the isolation phase, a correlation between the variations of salivary oxytocin and cortisol concentrations was found. These findings highlight the possibility of measuring the potential impact of stress on the oxytocinergic system during behavioral tests.This pilot study aimed at investigating how salivary oxytocin levels are affected by human interaction and isolation in eight guide dogs (six Labrador retrievers and two golden retrievers; four males and four females, 21.87 ± 1.36 months old) just before assignment to the blind person. Each dog engaged, at one-week intervals, in a positive (5 min of affiliative interaction with their trainer) and a negative (5 min of isolation) condition. Saliva samples used for Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) quantification of salivary oxytocin were collected before and immediately after both experimental conditions. In order to assess potential hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis activation that could have affected oxytocin levels, saliva samples were collected 15 min after both experimental conditions for EIA quantification of salivary cortisol and a behavioral assessment was performed during the negative condition. The results were compared using the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.05). Oxytocin concentrations showed a statistically significant increase after the positive interaction (p = 0.036) and no difference after the negative one (p = 0.779). Moreover, no difference (p = 0.263) was found between the cortisol concentrations after each experimental condition and no signs of distress were observed during the isolation phase. These preliminary findings support the hypothesis that stroking dogs has positive effects on their emotional state independently of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activation.

Mother And late Preterm Lactation Study (MAPLeS): a randomised controlled trial testing the use of a breastfeeding meditation by mothers of late preterm infants on maternal psychological state, breast milk composition and volume, and infant behaviour and growth

BackgroundLate preterm infants suffer from more complications and are less likely to be breastfed compared to term infants and their mothers experience higher levels of stress than mothers with term infants. The physiological or hormonal responses that influence milk ejection, milk production, and/or maternal behaviour are possible mechanisms by which maternal distress could negatively influence breastfeeding success. Maternal mood might also affect infant behaviour (feeding, sleeping, and crying) through changes in milk volume and composition, and consequently breastfeeding success and infant growth. Previous research, using relaxation therapy in 64 Malaysian first-time mothers breastfeeding their full-term infants, demonstrated that the therapy was effective in reducing maternal stress and improving infant growth. We hypothesise that expected benefits are even greater in a more vulnerable population where additional breastfeeding support is especially needed, such as in mothers of late preterm infants.Methods/designThis protocol describes our randomised controlled trial that tests whether a breastfeeding meditation audio reduces maternal stress in mothers of late preterm infants in London. Home visits will be conducted at 2–3 and 6–8 weeks post-delivery. Participants will be randomised to a control group or an intervention group, where mothers will be asked to listen to a meditation tape on a daily basis while breastfeeding. The main outcomes of the intervention will be maternal stress markers and infant weight Z-score. Potential mediators will be the secondary outcomes and include breast milk macronutrient and hormone levels (ghrelin, leptin, cortisol, and adiponectin), milk volume assessed by 48-h test-weighing, and maternal engagement with the infant. Infant behaviour, including crying and sleeping, and infant appetite will be evaluated. Data about other mediators such as maternal perception of milk supply and salivary oxytocin will be collected.DiscussionWe hypothesise that the use of the breastfeeding meditation will reduce maternal stress and consequently improve infant growth mediated by changes in milk composition and volume and maternal behaviour. This study will allow us to understand the mother–infant factors that influence breastfeeding in late preterm infants and potentially identify a method that could improve mother, infant, and breastfeeding outcomes.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03791749. Registered 1 January 2019.

Brief mindfulness session improves mood and increases salivary oxytocin in psychology students.

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) have been shown to be effective in increasing empathy in health professionals. Yet, more research is needed to analyse the specific influence of mindfulness exercises on biological variables involved in empathy, such as the biological system of oxytocin activity. In this study, we analyse the effects of a brief mindfulness session on positive and negative affect, state anxiety and salivary oxytocin (sOXT) in psychology students (N = 68). In the experimental group (n = 42), a mindfulness session was performed that included different guided meditation exercises. In the control group (n = 26), an emotion recognition exercise was carried out, along with a series of creative activities. Results showed that the mindfulness session was effective, because there was a significant reduction in negative affect (d = -.56, p < .001) and state anxiety (d = -.54, p = .007) in the experimental group. Likewise, there was an increase in sOXT (d = .99, p < .001) in this group, compared with the control group. Guided mindfulness meditation practice could be useful to reach an emotional and biological state that facilitates empathy. In this regard, the increase in sOXT after the mindfulness session adds further evidence about the biological mechanisms underlying the benefits of MBI on empathy.

Outcomes of collage art-based and narrative self-expression among home hospice caregivers

ABSTRACT Aims: This mixed methods quasi-experimental study examined the outcomes of a brief art therapy-based and a narrative interview-based intervention to address the psychosocial needs of home hospice caregivers. Methods: Participants (n = 14) chose to participate either in a narrative interview (n = 7) or arts-based interview (n = 7). Standardised self-report measures of affect, spiritual well-being, perceived stress, and self-efficacy and physiological markers of stress(salivary cortisol) and social/emotional connection (oxytocin levels) were collected before and after intervention sessions. Results: Qualitative findings indicated that caregivers (a) recognized their need for reducing stress and isolation; (b) experienced a learning curve related to illness and hospice care; (c) engaged in existential reflections on purpose and values; and were (d) living through progressive grief and loss. Quantitative findings indicated that the narrative condition group experienced improved spiritual well-being and negative affect. Both conditions were followed by improved positive affect. There were no statistically significant changes in salivary cortisol or oxytocin for either condition. Conclusion: The results suggest that caregivers might need longer term interventions for sustained changes. Implications for further research: Further research is needed to examine the role of narrative and visual self-expression among home hospice caregivers. Study limitations included a small non-randomised sample, lack of transcribed interview data, and incomplete survey and biomarker data. Plain-language summary This study examined the outcomes of an art therapy-based and a narrative intervention to address the mental, physical, and spiritual needs of family caregivers of patients at the end of life. Seven caregivers completed a therapeutic narrative interview in which caregivers shared their experiences, challenges, and sources of strength. Seven caregivers completed a collage art- based session in which they were invited to make a collage using a range of precut magazine collage images while sharing their experiences, challenges, and sources of strength as caregivers. Measures of stress (cortisol) and social/emotional connection (oxytocin) were collected before and after intervention sessions. Findings indicated that caregivers appreciated the opportunity for self-expression in both the narrative and the art-based conditions. Caregivers in the narrative condition group trended toward improvement in spiritual well-being and in reversing negative mood. Both conditions indicated a trend toward improved positive mood. Findings indicated that caregivers were consistently stressed and often isolated due to their roles. Four recurring themes were found within the qualitative data for caregivers in both conditions: (a) recognition and reduction of stress and isolation; (b) learning curve related to illness and hospice care; (c) existential reflections on death and living out values; and (d) living through progressive grief and loss. The preliminary quantitative findings suggest that narrative therapeutic approaches might be better suited for spiritual well-being. Caregivers in the narrative condition group demonstrated more improvement in spiritual well-being than those in the arts-based condition group. This finding may be the result of the format of the narrative condition in which caregivers reflected on existential concerns. In contrast, the structure of the art-making condition may have resulted in a focus on the present moment.

Social cognitive deficits in male children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in relation to salivary oxytocin level

BackgroundThere is evidence supporting a pathophysiological role of oxytocin in attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) especially hyperactive and combined subtypes. It is known that children with ADHD show a high rate of social cognitive problems regarding emotion recognition. Oxytocin was assumed to play a role in the emergence of social cognition deficits in ADHD. Aim of this study is to assess social cognition (emotion recognition) deficits in relation to oxytocin level in different subtypes of ADHD among the study group. Forty male patients with ADHD were recruited from psychiatric outpatient clinic of Fayoum University Hospital, were diagnosed according to DSM-5, and were assessed using Conner’s parent rating scale–revised (L). Social cognition measured by CANTAB emotion recognition task (ERT) and the level of salivary oxytocin was measured by ELISA technique.ResultsCombined subtype had been lower in correctly detecting the emotions of fear and anger. Predominately, hyperactive impulsive ADHD subtype was more rapid while detecting the emotions of surprise and disgust. There was significant negative correlation between age of onset of ADHD and errors in detecting the emotion of anger and positive correlation between age of onset of ADHD and errors in detecting the emotion of surprise. Correct detection of the emotion of happiness was associated with increased oxytocin level but the correct detection of the emotion of fear was inversely related to oxytocin level. No statistically significant difference between different subtypes of ADHD regarding salivary oxytocin level.ConclusionOxytocin may play a role in social cognitive deficits in ADHD. The presence of social cognitive deficits in ADHD prompts further investigations to focus on the specificity of these deficits and in turn identify ways of managing them. Studying oxytocin in this population and its relation to social cognitive deficits can support the notion that oxytocin is a biological marker for ADHD.

Salivary oxytocin in pigs, cattle, and goats during positive human-animal interactions

Research on oxytocin (OT) has provided crucial insight into the neuroendocrine mechanisms of social behavior and human-animal interactions. Nonetheless, this peptide hormone remains challenging to sample, usually requiring invasive measures in the brain or blood, which limits its use. We conducted an analytical validation of the measurement of OT in the saliva of three common farm animal species: pigs, cattle and goats. We then investigated the biological significance of salivary OT concentrations by using a positive human-animal interaction paradigm. The paradigm varied in terms of human familiarity and included a control condition where the animal was alone in the testing pen. A total of 18 pigs, 18 cattle and 9 goats were subjected to each condition using a within-individual counterbalanced design. Animals were free to choose to interact with the human. Saliva samples were collected immediately before and after the 10-min test, and behavior during the test was analyzed. Oxytocin could be reliably measured by ELISA in the saliva of goats (without extraction), and in the saliva of pigs and cattle after extraction. Salivary OT concentration did not change consistently according to testing condition. However, salivary OT concentration was significantly associated with some behaviors, with different relationships depending on the species. In conclusion, OT can be reliably measured in the saliva of goats and, after extraction, in the saliva of pigs and cattle. The relationships of OT with human-animal interactions and animal behavior were complex and to some extent species-dependent, possibly reflecting the perception of the interaction by the animal.

Increased Salivary Oxytocin and Empathy in Students of Clinical and Health Psychology After a Mindfulness and Compassion-Based Intervention

Mindfulness and compassion-based interventions (MCBI) have shown to be effective in increasing self-reported empathy in healthcare professionals. However, no studies described a beneficial effect of MCBI on biological variables related to empathy. In this study, we analyze the effects of an MCBI on the basal levels of salivary oxytocin (sOXT), empathic accuracy, and self-reported empathy in students of clinical and health psychology (N = 90). In the experimental group (n = 37), an MCBI was applied. In the active control group (n = 27), students participated in basic psychotherapeutic skills training. In the waiting list group (n = 26), students did not participate in any intervention. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was performed, including pre- and post-intervention evaluations and the follow-up evaluation. Results indicate a significant interaction between the groups on the basal levels of sOXT (p = .045, ηp2 = .05) and perspective taking (p = .040, ηp2 = .06), so that the experimental group showed increased sOXT at the end of the MCBI (p = .009, d = .66) and in perspective taking on the follow-up evaluation (p = .001, d = .52). Introducing MCBI in the university education of clinical and health psychologists can help to improve their empathy skills, which would ultimately have a beneficial influence on the health of the users of their services. Furthermore, sOXT could be used as a valid biomarker in the study of the effects of MCBI on biological variables associated with empathy and affective bonds in different settings.

The Effects of Essential Oil on Salivary Oxytocin Concentration in Postmenopausal Women.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to find essential oils that have increased the oxytocin concentration in postmenopausal women. Methods: Fifteen postmenopausal women participated in this study and the effects of 10 different essential oils were investigated. The essential oils included rose otto, sweet orange, lavender, neroli, frankincense, jasmine absolute, ylang ylang, roman chamomile, clary sage, and Indian sandalwood. The subjects were exposed to the control first for 20 min, followed by exposure to an essential oil for 20 min. Each subject received exposure to only a single kind of essential oil per day. Saliva was collected four times for each patient: immediately before and immediately after control exposure, and immediately before and immediately after essential oil exposure. The oxytocin concentration in the saliva was measured using a competitive ELISA kit. Results: The results showed that salivary oxytocin concentrations increased significantly more after exposure to lavender, neroli, jasmine absolute, roman chamomile, clary sage, and Indian sandalwood than after exposure to the control odor. Conclusions: The aroma of certain essential oils may elicit increased secretion of oxytocin in postmenopausal women. This study suggests that olfactory stimulation with any of a number of essential oils increases salivary oxytocin concentrations, which may inhibit aging-induced reduction in muscle mass and function in women.

Effects of Human–Dog Interactions on Salivary Oxytocin Concentrations and Heart Rate Variability: A Four-Condition Cross-Over Trial

ABSTRACTDog ownership is often advocated for its potential benefits to human health, with changes to oxytocin and autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity proposed as possible underlying mechanisms. The aims of the current study were to a) examine the effect of two common types of human–dog interactions (dog-walking and affiliative interactions) on salivary oxytocin concentrations and heart rate variability (HRV, an indicator of ANS activity), and b) investigate any putative moderating role for the strength of human–dog attachment on such responses. Twenty-nine dog owners completed a four-condition random-order cross-over trial: dog-walking (DW); walking without the dog (W); affiliative human–dog interaction (H-DI); and resting without the dog (C). Each condition was performed for approximately 15 minutes. Saliva and HRV samples were collected before and after each condition. Linear mixed models were used to analyze data, with the participant considered a random effect; condition, order of conditions, and condition duration as fixed effects. Oxytocin concentrations were not significantly different following any of the four conditions. HRV was significantly reduced following DW (mean change HF HRV = –0.37, 95% CI = –0.70, –0.04) and W (mean change HF HRV = –0.49, 95% CI = –0.81, –0.17). Considering moderation by the strength of the human–dog bond, pairwise comparisons revealed that, compared with W, DW elicited an increase in oxytocin concentrations (mean change 9.32 pg/mL, 95% CI = 6.52, 12.12) and HRV (mean change SDRR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.19, 0.63) in owners with lower levels of attachment. These owners also displayed increased oxytocin concentrations following H-DI (mean change 3.90 pg/mL, 95% CI = 1.48, 6.32), compared with C. Overall, we did not find a consistent pattern for positive oxytocin or HRV responses to human–dog interactions. The strength of owner–dog attachment was found to have a moderating effect, suggesting that human–dog interactions may elicit greater physiological responses in low-attachment individuals.

Salivary Vasopressin as A Potential Non-Invasive Biomarker of Anxiety in Dogs Diagnosed with Separation-Related Problems.

Simple SummaryOxytocin and vasopressin have been shown to have opposite effects on the expression of anxiety and fear responses in rodents. In the present study, we analyzed the salivary fluctuations of these neuropeptides in both behaviorally normal dogs and dogs with separation distress in response to a three-minute separation from the owner, in a new environment. Dogs with a previous diagnosis of separation distress showed more anxiety-related behaviors and higher concentrations of vasopressin than control dogs when separated from the owner. Further research is needed on the potential use of salivary vasopressin as an early, non-invasive biomarker of anxiety-related disorders in pet dogs.Physiological biomarkers of canine anxiety have not been extensively investigated to date. To identify new biomarkers in dogs, we compared behaviorally normal dogs (Control group, N = 13) to dogs diagnosed with separation problems (Case group, N = 13) as they were introduced into a novel environment in the presence of two strangers and subjected to a short episode of separation and reunion with the owner. During the separation phase, dogs in the Case group explored significantly less than controls and were significantly more persistent in expressing passive stress-coping strategies aimed at seeking proximity to their owners. When the owners returned, dogs with separation distress spent significantly more time jumping up on the strangers than control dogs did. Salivary oxytocin and vasopressin concentrations did not differ between samples taken before and after the separation. However, vasopressin concentrations immediately after separation were significantly higher in the Case than in the Control group and remained higher, although not significantly so, 10 min later. These results indicated that dogs with separation distress became more anxious than typical dogs when separated from their owner in an unfamiliar environment and provided preliminary support for the use of salivary vasopressin as a possible biomarker for anxiety-related responses in dogs.

Experimental empathy induction promotes oxytocin increases and testosterone decreases

Oxytocin and testosterone coordinate adaptive social behaviors with stimuli in the environment. Administration of oxytocin and testosterone is associated with increased and reduced indicators of empathy, respectively, but how levels of these hormones are jointly affected by naturalistic empathy-inducing stimuli remains unclear. In this study, salivary oxytocin and testosterone levels were measured in 173 healthy adults before and after watching a video involving a gravely ill child. Participants also completed questionnaires to assess psychological variables predicted to affect oxytocin reactivity (Autism-Spectrum Quotient, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, Empathy and Systemizing Quotients). On average, there was a 14% increase in oxytocin (p = 0.003) and 4% decrease in testosterone (p = 0.001) pre- to post-video. Opposite directional changes in hormone levels occurred together, as supported by a chi-square test (p < 0.001) and a circular statistics test (p < 0.05). Considered separately, psychological traits did not predict hormone levels or changes to any appreciable degree. However, oxytocin and testosterone changes were linked with empathy relative to systemizing such that: (1) ‘Empathy Bias’ was associated with a large oxytocin increase but little change in testosterone, while (2) ‘Systemizing Bias’ and ‘Balance’ between empathy and systemizing were associated with a decrease in testosterone but little change in oxytocin. These findings suggest that participants were divisible into ‘high oxytocin responders’ (relatively empathetic) and ‘high testosterone responders’ (balanced or systemizing-biased). These findings support a model of joint, opposite changes in oxytocin and testosterone under experimental empathy induction, with high, somewhat predictable, diversity in individual responses.

Oxytocin levels in low-risk primiparas following breast stimulation for spontaneous onset of labor: a quasi-experimental study

BackgroundBreast stimulation is performed to self-induce labor. However, there are apparently no reports on hormonal evaluation during stimulation for consecutive days in relation to induction effect. We evaluated the salivary oxytocin level following 3 consecutive days of own breast stimulation for 1 h each day compared with no breast stimulation.MethodsWe used a quasi-experimental design. The participants were low-risk primiparas between 38 and 39 gestational weeks. Eight saliva samples per participant were collected at preintervention and 30, 60, and 75 min postintervention on the first and third days. The primary outcome was change in the salivary oxytocin level on the third day after 3 consecutive days of breast stimulation for 1 h each day compared with no breast stimulation. The secondary outcomes were the rate of spontaneous labor onset and negative events including uterine hyperstimulation and abnormal fetal heart rate.ResultsBetween February and September 2016, 42 women were enrolled into the intervention group (n = 22) or control group (n = 20). As there were differences in the basal oxytocin levels between the 2 groups, to estimate the change in the oxytocin level from baseline, we used a linear mixed model with a first-order autoregressive (AR1) covariance structure. The dependent variable was change in the oxytocin level from baseline. The independent variables were gestational weeks on the first day of intervention, age, education, rs53576 and rs2254298, group, time point, and interaction of group and time. After Bonferroni correction, the estimated change in the mean oxytocin level at 30 min on the third day was significantly higher in the intervention group (M = 20.2 pg/mL, SE = 26.2) than in the control group (M = − 44.4 pg/mL, SE = 27.3; p = 0.018). There was no significant difference in the rate of spontaneous labor onset. Although there were no adverse events during delivery, uterine tachysystole occurred in 1 case during the intervention.ConclusionsThe estimated change in the mean oxytocin level was significantly higher 30 min after breast stimulation on the third day. Thus, consecutive breast stimulation increased the salivary oxytocin level. Repeated stimulations likely increase the oxytocin level.Trial registrationUMIN000020797 (University Hospital Medical Information Network; Prospective trial registered: January 29, 2016).

Martial arts increase oxytocin production

Numerous studies have demonstrated that oxytocin (OT), a peptide hormone, plays an important role in regulating mammalian social behaviors, linking it to social affiliation in parent-infant attachment, romantic and filial relationships, and other prosocial behaviors, such as trust and cooperation. Not surprisingly, research efforts have been made to increase endogenous levels of OT. In the present study, we investigated whether traditional martial arts training, which integrates the natural benefits of physical exercise with dyadic prosocial interaction, would result in OT response. To this end, 68 beginner and advanced participants were recruited from several schools practicing Jujitsu (“soft art”), a form of traditional martial arts originating in Japan. Salivary OT levels were assessed at baseline, immediately following high-intensity training, and following a cool-down period. Analyses revealed a significant increase in OT immediately after a high-intensity training, returning to baseline levels following a cool-down period. Additionally, although no significant difference between beginner and advanced martial artists was found, a significantly higher increase in salivary OT followed ground grappling, as compared to “punch-kick” sparring, indicating an added benefit of close contact tactile interaction. These results suggest that the reportedly socially beneficial effects of traditional martial arts may be in part mediated by OT release and underscore the potentially therapeutic applications of these methods for disorders involving social dysfunction, such as autism, conduct problems, or schizophrenia.

Changes in salivary oxytocin levels and bonding disorder in women from late pregnancy to early postpartum: A pilot study.

ObjectivesThis pilot study aimed to 1) follow the longitudinal changes in the salivary oxytocin level of pregnant women from late pregnancy to early postpartum, 2) examine the factors related to these changes, and 3) clarify the association of these changes with mother-infant bonding.MethodsThis study used a longitudinal observational design and questionnaires to obtain objective and subjective data. For oxytocin evaluation, saliva samples were collected and their oxytocin levels were measured at 4-time points [i.e., 1) 36–37 gestation weeks, 2) 38–39 gestation weeks, 3) 1–2 days postpartum, 4) 4–5 days postpartum]. The oxytocin level was assayed in duplicates by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Baseline data were evaluated using the Parental Bonding Instrument (25 items), State Trait Anxiety Inventory (20 items), and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Postpartum data were evaluated using the Mother to Infant Bonding Scale Japanese Version (10 items), Maternity Blues Scale (13 items), and ‘Fatigue after Childbirth’ using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS: 0–100 mm).ResultsThe participants were 13 primiparas with a mean age of 33 years. They had no depression or anxiety at the baseline. Their mean salivary oxytocin levels significantly increased from late pregnancy (36–39 gestation weeks) up to 1 day postpartum and then decreased until 5 days postpartum. There was a negligible correlation between the bonding disorder and the salivary oxytocin level on the 5th day after childbirth. A moderate correlation was observed between the maternity blues score and the salivary oxytocin level. There was a significant negative correlation between the postpartum fatigue and the salivary oxytocin level 1 day and 5 days after childbirth.ConclusionThe mean salivary oxytocin levels significantly increased from the baseline up to 1 day postpartum and then decreased until 5 days postpartum. The salivary oxytocin level was moderately associated with maternity blues and significantly with postpartum fatigue.

Maternal responsivity and oxytocin in opioid-dependent mothers.

Although prenatal opioid exposure and postnatal withdrawal (neonatal abstinence syndrome) are associated with infant neurobehavioral deficits, little is known about the impact of continued maternal opioid treatment in the postnatal period on maternal responsivity and relationship to mother's oxytocin release during dyadic interactions in the Still Face paradigm. Mother and infant dyads (N=14) were recruited and comprised of mothers on opioid replacement throughout pregnancy and postpartum (opioid-exposed group, n=7) and a demographically controlled, non-exposed group (n=7). Salivary oxytocin was collected following 10min of infant separation before and immediately after a 6-min Still Face paradigm. Oxytocin measures correlated strongly with sensitive and prosocial maternal behaviors in response to infant initiation. Opioid-exposed compared to non-exposed mothers had significantly lower pre-test to post-test rise in salivary oxytocin concentration level as well as fewer sensitive behaviors during the reunion condition of the Still Face paradigm. Maternal opioid dependence during early infancy may impair maternal responsivity and sensitivity through suppression of the oxytocin reflex to infant stimulation.

Effects of Lactobacillus reuteri-containing lozenges on healing after surgical removal of mandibular third molars: a randomised controlled trial.

We investigated the effect of probiotic supplements on oral wound healing, swelling, pain and discomfort after surgical removal of mandibular third molars. A second aim was to evaluate if the intervention could influence the concentrations of oxytocin in saliva. Sixty-four consecutive volunteers (18-34 years) were enrolled to a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial with two parallel arms. Following surgery, the patients were asked to take three lozenges per day containing two strains of Lactobacillus reuteri (DSM 17938 and ATCC PTA 5289) or placebo for two weeks. The clinical healing and extra-oral swelling were scored two weeks post-operatively. Samples of wound exudate were cultivated for the presence of Staphylococcus aureus and β-haemolytic streptococci. Salivary oxytocin concentrations were analysed from pre- and post-surgery samples using ELISA technique. Compliance and the subjective perception of swelling, pain and discomfort were reported daily through visual analogue scales in a logbook. All patients except three completed the protocol and the postoperative course was uneventful in most cases. Minor extra-oral swellings were noted in five patients, but none required antibiotic treatment. At the 2-week follow-up, there were no significant differences in clinical wound healing index, extra-oral swelling, bacterial growth or salivary oxytocin levels between the groups. The self-reported data unveiled, however, a significantly reduced sense of swelling, in particular during the second week after surgery in the probiotic test group (P<0.05). Likewise, significantly fewer nights with disturbed sleep and fewer days with sick-leave from work were reported among the participants in the test group (P<0.05). No differences were found in the post-operative use of analgesics. In conclusion, we found no significant influence of probiotic supplements on objective wound healing after surgical extraction of impacted mandibular third molars. However, since the patients' perceived significant post-operative ameliorations, further studies are needed to explore the patient's value of the intervention.

Intranasal administration of oxytocin decreases task-related aggressive responses in healthy young males

Aggression and distrust are often challenging problems in mental health treatment. Converging evidence reveals that oxytocin increases trust in social interactions and decreases fear of social betrayal. However, oxytocin has also been associated with protective behavior and, as such, might increase defensive aggressive reactions.In this randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study, the effects of intranasal oxytocin (32IU) on task-related aggressive responses were measured using the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (PSAP). Fifty-seven healthy males were enrolled and randomized to oxytocin (N = 30) or placebo (n = 27). Salivary oxytocin, cortisol and testosterone were measured serially prior to the intervention, and then before and after the PSAP, to evaluate the effects of oxytocin administration on hormonal functioning in relation to aggression. In addition, oxytocin was measured in urine collected directly after the experimental task, reflecting the 2 h period after oxytocin or placebo administration.The proportion of aggressive responses to the PSAP was significantly lower in participants receiving oxytocin versus placebo (β= -0.46, P = 0.01). No significant effect of oxytocin was found regarding defensive reactions. Urinary oxytocin was negatively associated with the proportion of aggressive responses to the PSAP in both the oxytocin and the placebo group (β= -0.02, P < 0.01), suggesting that higher levels of urinary oxytocin corresponded with reduced aggressive responding. Our results indicate that oxytocin administration reduces aggressive behavior in healthy young men. Moreover, increased endogenous urinary oxytocin is associated with less aggressive responding. Taken together, these findings suggest that oxytocin signaling has a causal influence on aggressive behavior.

Associations between oxytocin and cortisol reactivity and recovery in response to psychological stress and sexual arousal

Previous research suggests a dynamic regulatory relationship between oxytocin and cortisol, but the specific nature of this relationship and its context-specificity have not been fully specified. In the present study, we repeatedly assessed both salivary oxytocin and salivary cortisol during two experimental sessions (one inducing sexual arousal and one inducing psychological stress), conducted two weeks apart with the same group of 63 female participants. Baseline cortisol and baseline oxytocin were significantly correlated in both sessions. Cortisol levels showed significantly different patterns of change during the stress assessment than during the sexual arousal assessment, but oxytocin showed similar patterns of change across both assessments. Greater cortisol stress reactivity predicted higher oxytocin levels immediately after the stressor, but a different pattern emerged during the arousal assessment: Greater oxytocin arousal reactivity predicted attenuated post-arousal reductions in cortisol. For both cortisol and oxytocin, individual differences in women’s reactivity to sexual arousal did not predict their reactivity to psychological stress. These findings contribute new insights regarding associations between cortisol and oxytocin reactivity and recovery in different psychological contexts.

Exposure to early and persistent maternal depression impairs the neural basis of attachment in preadolescence

Maternal depression increases child vulnerability to psychopathology, loneliness, and social maladjustment; yet, its long-term effects on the social brain are unknown. In this prospective longitudinal study we examined the impact of early and persistent maternal depression on the neural basis of attachment in preadolescence. A community cohort was followed in two groups; children exposed to maternal depression from birth to 6 years and healthy controls. At 9 months and 6 years, mother-child interactions were coded for maternal sensitivity and affect synchrony and salivary oxytocin levels were assessed at 6 years. At preadolescence (11–13 years), children underwent magnetoencephalography (MEG) while exposed to own versus unfamiliar mother-child interaction. Own interaction elicited greater response in beta- and gamma-band oscillations across a wide cluster in temporal and insular cortices, including the Superior Temporal Sulcus, Superior Temporal Gyrus, Inferior Temporal Gyrus, and insula. Beta activations were predicted by maternal sensitivity across early childhood and gamma by affect synchrony. Oxytocin was related to beta response to social cues. Maternal depression impacted child's brain response in two ways. First, maternal depression significantly increased the prevalence of child affective disorder and such children showed no neural differentiation between attachment and non-attachment stimuli. Second, maternal depression decreased maternal sensitivity, affect synchrony, and child oxytocin across early childhood and these were longitudinally associated with aberrant neural response to attachment-specific and social-general cues in preadolescence. Our findings are the first to describe mechanisms by which maternal depression impairs the neural basis of attachment at the transition to adolescence and advocate the need for relationship-focused early interventions.