Sal Trees Research Articles

EXPLORING ABHAVA PRATINIDHI DRAVYA (SUBSTITUTE) FOR SHOREA ROBUSTA (GAERTN.): GIVEN ITS SANGRAHI KARMA

The ancient system of Ayurveda, rooted in Holistic Health Practices, acknowledges the broad significance of Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya. Pratinidhi Dravyas are the substitute drugs which are utilised in the absence of the original drug (Abhava Dravya). Shorea robusta (Gaertn.), known as the Sal tree, holds a revered position in Ayurvedic Medicine for its numerous therapeutic properties. It is Kasaya rasatmak, katu vipaki, sheeta veerya and has ruksha laghu guna and performs Sangrahi Karma, which can be correlated with cellular uptake activity of body fluids. Thus, synthesising traditional wisdom with modern insights, this article aims to provide a holistic understanding of Sangrahi karma. Also, this article aims to compile possible substitutes for Shorea robusta (Gaertn.) about Raspanchak and Sangrahi Karma.

Advances in the Biology, Behavior, Ecology, and Management of the Sal Heartwood Borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman, 1842 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae): A Review

This extensive research on Hoplocerambyx spinicornis, a notorious pest inflicting substantial damage on Sal trees (Shorea robusta) in India. The focus is on the beetle's biology, behavior, ecological implications, and the current strategies for its management. The Sal tree, a vital component of Indian forests, faces significant threats from H. spinicornis, whose life cycle and destructive larval stage are closely examined. The review highlights the species' taxonomy within the Cerambycidae family and details its distinct morphological characteristics, particularly the adaptations observed in different developmental stages. The beetle's host selection process, largely dictated by the physiological state of Sal trees, and its feeding behavior, both in larval and adult stages, are critically analyzed for their extensive impact on tree health and forest structure. The ecological implications of H. spinicornis infestations are profound, with substantial effects on biodiversity and forest dynamics. This beetle's interaction with other species, including natural predators and symbiotic relationships, forms a complex ecological web influencing forest health. In addressing management strategies, the review covers a spectrum of approaches, from early detection methods like pheromone trapping to biological controls utilizing natural enemies and microbial agents. The role of chemical treatments, despite their efficacy, raises environmental concerns, highlighting the need for sustainable approaches. Cultural and mechanical controls, such as silvicultural practices and sanitation logging, are discussed as part of an integrated pest management (IPM) framework, which combines various strategies in a balanced and ecologically sensitive manner. The review identifies key challenges and future directions, emphasizing the necessity of genetic studies, long-term ecological research, and the development of sustainable management strategies. The impact of external factors such as climate change and habitat alteration on H. spinicornis and Sal forests is critically examined, underscoring the need for adaptive management strategies. This review aims to provide a holistic understanding of H. spinicornis, offering insights for researchers, forest managers, and policymakers involved in the conservation of Sal forests.

A comprehensive checklist of fungal species associated with Shorea robusta (Sal tree) in South Asia: taxonomic diversity and ecological insights

In this literature-derived report, we present an updated checklist of fungal species associated with Shorea robusta. This compilation encompasses information regarding the habitats and locations where fungi have been identified on the sal tree, and integrates original taxonomic descriptions when available. In aggregate, 79 fungal species from 16 nations have been documented on the sal tree. The associated fungi can be classified into three primary groups: (i) Ascomycota: Spanning 10 orders, 12 families, and 13 genera, this group comprises 18 identified species and an additional 3 species yet to be precisely identified. (ii) Anamorphic-Hyphomycetes: This group includes 08 orders, 6 families, and 19 genera, encompassing 23 identified species and 2 species whose identification remains pending. (iii) Basidiomycota: Covering 5 orders, 11 families, and 26 genera, there are 39 discerned species and 3 species with undetermined taxonomy. From the data analyzed, a predominant proportion of the fungal species have been detected on the sal tree’s leaves, bark, branches, and decaying wood. Notably, the leaves manifest the highest fungal association. This checklist serves as a foundational resource for gauging the diversity of fungal species on the sal tree within the South Asian region.

SOCIAL FORESTRY ENCOURAGE ECO-CONSERVATION, CULTURAL IMPORTANCE AND TRADITION FOR TRIBAL UPSHOT

Indian forest and forestry was enhanced with various new steps. Community development, forest regenerations, forest management ushers a new way of live and livelihood sustenance. Forest was first priority for the socioeconomic pursuit to maintain economic upliftment for the people at large. India is a multi-ethnic society where people practices their traditional wellbeing with eco-conservation which encourage cultural importance. Social forestry encourages the management of forests for the benefits of local people. It emphasises on various aspects of which very few are- forest management, forest protection, and afforestation of deforested lands with the objective of improving the rural, environmental, and social development along with community protection. Every species of the forest bears a traditional approach with cultural values. Human existence could have been impossible if the forest was denuded. Environmental conservation is need to overcome the battle of global warming, climate change, loss of medicinal value of the natural species. It's a practice that paves the way for protection, conservation, manage the natural resources to encourage personages in adherence with social sway.The present investigation was peered into the Khagra Beat, Hijli Range of Kharagpur Forest Division with the involvement of people surrounded by way of social forestry explorations, plantation of Sal Trees to protect environment with traditional engagement of the local people which enhance cultural value orientations, encourage involvement of personages to adhere social see-saw.

ESTIMATION OF WOODY CARBON DENSITY BY ALLOMETRIC METHOD IN THE SELECTED SAL FORESTS OF BANGLADESH

Estimation of Carbon (C) density in different Sal forests of Bangladesh has not yet been done for exploring their potentials in storing C. The present study compared the woody C density among three selected Sal forests located in Madhupur, Lalmai and Singra of Bangladesh in order to examine the effects of management intensities on C stocks. A total of 19 plots (each with 10 m × 10 m in size), 9 from Madhupur forest and each 5 from other two forests were placed to collect data on vegetation structure, plant diameter and woody C density. Allometric method was used to estimate C density for both aboveground and belowground parts of juvenile and adult tree plants of the selected plots. Woody biomass was converted into C content by multiplying the value with van Bemmelen factor (1.724). Results showed that woody C density was significantly (p = 0.0156) higher in Lalmai (552.46±64.09 ton/ha) and Singra forests (547.13±62.43 ton/ha) than the Madhupur Sal forest (354.03±38.43 ton/ha). Mean diameter of Sal tree plant at breast height was significantly (p = 0.022) higher in Lalmai (38.84±2.12cm) and Singra (37.36±1.97 cm) forests than Madhupur forest (30.72±1.93 cm). Results clearly demonstrated that forest trees with high average diameter had the high woody biomass content. This study thus suggested that long term forest conservation could be an effective approach to increase C stock in the forest ecosystems.

Utilizing the Multi-Faceted Potential of Shorea robusta in 2023: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract: The Sal tree (Shorea robusta), which is found in South and Southeast Asian tropical forest, has attracted increasing interest in its potential utility for a variety of purposes, including as a source of timber, fuel, and medicinal compounds in recent years. This comprehensive review examines the geographic distribution of Sal trees, emphasizing their presence in diverse ecosystems beyond India. The paper begins by describing the taxonomy and distribution of the Sal tree and then summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding its ecological role in tropical forests. Furthermore, the paper reviews the various uses, including a source of timber, fuel, and medicinal compounds. Finally, the paper discusses future research directions and potential areas for further study. Research and development initiatives explore the potential of SSC, bridging the gap between traditional knowledge and modern agricultural practices. Despite receiving relatively less research attention compared to others, ongoing research projects are shedding light on Sal trees’ various properties and applications. Collaboration, improved communication, and innovation offer opportunities to further unlock the Sal tree's potential in the future.

Facile synthesis and characterization of polymer composites with cobalt ferrite and biomass based activated carbon for microwave absorption

In this work, flexible EMI shield materials have been prepared by the solution cast technique using AC-STG {activated carbon derived from Sal tree's gum}, CoFe2O4 nanoparticles and a polymer electrolyte {P(VDF-TrFE) + 15 wt% LiTFSI + 50 wt% EMIMTFSI}. The prepared polymer composites have been characterized for structural, morphological, thermal, ionic conductivity, dielectric, and magnetic properties. EMI shielding effectiveness has been obtained in the X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz). AC-STG particles have been characterized using XRD, FESEM EDX with elemental mapping, FTIR and RAMAN techniques. The CoFe2O4 (CF) nanoparticles have been prepared using the hydrothermal method. The highest ionic conductivity of ∼ 3.24х10−3 S.cm−1 for polymer electrolyte (PE15IL50) has been obtained at room temperature. On addition of AC-STG and CF particles to the polymer electrolyte, enhanced EMI shielding effectiveness and thermal stability of the composite films has been achieved. Also, FTIR results give the confirmation of interaction between the polymer electrolyte, AC-STG and CF particles. This study demonstrates that the EMI shielding properties of the polymer composite (PE15IL50AC-STG4CF5) get improved owing to the synergy between the properties of AC-STG and CF nanoparticles resulting in EMI shielding of ∼ 49.6 dB at 8.2 GHz (absorption ∼ 99.99%). There are three factors, viz., dielectric losses, magnetic losses and interfacial polarization which contribute majorly to this much desirable EMI performance. The studies being reported indicate PE15IL50AC-STG4CF5 polymer composite to be an excellent biomass-based composite for EM wave absorption.

Butterfly Diversity in the Campus area of University of North Bengal, West Bengal, India.

Butterflies play a crucial role as bio-indicators, signaling the health of ecosystems and biodiversity, making their conservation vital. The northern region of West Bengal in eastern India is renowned for its remarkable butterfly diversity. The University of North Bengal campus, spanning 315.99 acres at the Eastern Himalayan foothills (26°42′34.03″N; 88°21′14.96″E), is home to diverse flora and fauna. The surrounding area offers a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, tea gardens, and wetlands, which support numerous animal species. This study aimed to assess butterfly diversity in three distinct geographical sites within the university campus: the Tea garden area (dominated by tea and rubber plants), Salkunja (a forested area with a semi-perennial stream dominated by Sal trees), and Magurmari (an area with semi-perennial streams, ponds, ephemeral water bodies, paddy fields, and grasslands). Monthly butterfly observations were conducted from December 2021 to January 2023. The study documented 55 butterfly species from six families (Hesperiidae, Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, and Riodinidae), with Nymphalidae being the most prevalent and Riodinidae the least. Notably, the ecotone area of Magurmari exhibited the highest butterfly species diversity. Four species protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WPA), 1972, were also identified. This research aims to analyze butterfly diversity in relation to their habitats and conservation needs within the university campus, contributing to the development of a concise checklist specific to this district for effective conservation efforts. The study underscores the significant butterfly diversity found on the campus, emphasizing the urgent need for focused conservation actions.

Diversity and distribution of true flies (Diptera) of Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India: Functional roles based on ecological guilds

Proper understanding of ecological dynamics of faunal components, whether it is a large mammal or a tiny insect of any ecosystem including forests, plays an important role in the eco-management of any eco-zone. Dipteran insects constituting a major faunal group among the entomo-diversity of any forest ecosystem portray significant functional roles in determining the stability in the ecosystem functioning of the respective ecosystem. The present paper has attempted to document the diversity of dipteran insects inhabiting a tropical deciduous forest of the extended part of Deccan Biogeographic Zone in the eastern part of India, the Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary alongside indicating its habitat preference and distribution patterns. A total of 34 species under 19 families of the order Diptera were recorded from different habitats of the studied forest areas, of which three species are considered new reports from the state of Odisha, India. Out of the three selected eco-zones, the deep forest area having a higher density of sal trees (Shorea robusta) revealed less species richness but high relative abundance, whereas the barren grazing land demonstrated higher species richness with low relative abundance. The eco-zone with wetlands and associated vegetation have shown moderate species richness and diversity of dipteran insects. Three contrasting seasons (pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon) of this region have also demonstrated different patterns of diversity and density of this group of insects which have been segregatedinto several feeding guilds in tune with the seasonal availability of food resources.

An Investigation into the Mechanical Properties of an Epoxy-Based Composite Made From Jute Fiber and Reinforced With Sal Tree Gum Powder

An Investigation into the Mechanical Properties of an Epoxy-Based Composite Made From Jute Fiber and Reinforced With Sal Tree Gum Powder

Biodiesel Production from Sal Oil: A Mamdani-Type Fuzzy Inference System Using the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox Graphical User Interface (Gui) Tools

This paper describes the performance evaluation of fuzzy logic controller in Biodiesel Production system using MATLAB Simulink and MATLAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Biodiesel (fatty acid alkyl esters) is derived from triglycerides by transesterification with alcohol, has attracted considerable attention during the past decade as a renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic fuel. Vegetable oils are produced from numerous oil seed crops and many of them are used for edible purpose. The oil obtained from Sal seeds (Shorea Robusta) even though used by local tribes in Indian forests for edible purpose, it is still classified as non-edible oil. Sal tree is abundantly available in forests of Indian subcontinent and this wood is used in building construction and manufacture of furniture because of its characteristic hardness. In this paper maximum output yield-Biodiesel Production has been done (SOME-Sal Oil Methyl Esters) by optimizing reaction parametersin relation to the Excess Methanol Quantity (EMQ, 150%),Reaction Temperature (RT, 65°C), Catalyst Quantity (CQ, NaOH - 0.25 W%) by Max-Min (MAMDANI) Method Fuzzy Inference System using the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox Graphical User Interface (GUI) Tools of MATLAB (Intelligent System).

First photographic record of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis Elliot, 1839 (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) in Badrama Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India

We report the presence of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis Elliot, 1839 in Badrama Wildlife Sanctuary, a first record to Odisha. The presence of the species was identified through direct sighting and photo capture. We also observed feeding behaviour of the flying squirrels on Tamarind and Sal trees in the sanctuary.

Ornamental plants associated with Buddhist figures in China

BackgroundIn China, many ornamental plants associated with Buddhist figures, including the Sakyamuni, Bodhisattva, and Arhat, were grown and worshiped because of their cultural and religious significance. However, the systematic collation and ethnobotanical information about these culturally important plants have yet to be fully understood.MethodsOnline information was collected from 93 e-commercial platforms for ornamental plants all over China. Field sampling was conducted in 16 ornamental markets and 163 Buddhist temples using key informant interviews and participatory observation with traders, tourists, and local disciples. The types, distributions, and associated characteristics of the screened plants were summarized and the evolving characteristics of these ornamental plants were analyzed.ResultsA total of 60 ornamental plants, including six varieties and one subspecies, were screened, of which 43 species were associated with Sakyamuni, 13 with Bodhisattva, and four with Arhat. Among the 60 species, three were regarded as the Asoka tree related to Buddha's birth, ten as the Bodhi tree connected to Buddha's enlightenment, three as the Sal tree associated with Buddha's nirvana, nine were related to Buddha’s head, belly, or hand, and 18 were connected with Buddha as lotus throne, bamboo monastery, or Bodhi beads. The evolving characteristics of these ornamental plants primarily constituted the substitution of the original plants by similar native plant species, followed by the introduced species with comparable morphology to the Buddhist figures.ConclusionsPeople grow ornamental plants associated with Buddhist figures to reflect their love and praise for plants and Buddha. The association between the ornamental plants and Buddhist figures will aid the inheritance of Buddhist culture and promote ornamental plants in the commercial market. Thus, the ethnobotany of ornamental plants associated with Buddhist figures can serve as a basis for future investigation of modern Buddhist culture.

Tree Structure Analysis, Biomass and Carbon Stock of Sal Forests in Central Himalayan Region

Present study deals with density, species diversity, basal area, IVI, biomass and carbon stock in Sal forests. The study was conducted in three Sal forest sites around Champawat at Tanakpur. Among the fifteen tree species, total density of trees varied between 290-690 ind. ha-1 in all studied forest. The basal area of trees in forests was 50.92 to 78.84 m2 ha-1. Tree species diversity of Sal forests varied from 1.07-2.11. Biomass and carbon stock of trees ranged from 473.3 to 786.8 tha-1 and 224.8- 373.7 tha-1yr-1 respectively. Shorea robusta was dominated species based on density parameter in all studied forest sites. The tree density of Sal forests was slightly on lower side with comparison to natural forests in and around the region. However, density exhibits positive correlation at (p?0.05) with biomass and carbon. But the difference in age and size of Sal trees showed the variation in biomass and carbon stock among the studied forest site. Present study concludes that Sal forests in and around nearby villages were in degraded conditions due to anthropogenic pressure. Thus, the forests must be conserved through judicious management by providing proper scientific inputs for high biomass and carbon.

Temporal variability in fine root dynamics in relation to tree girth size in sub‐tropical sal (Shorea robusta) forests

AbstractIn forest ecosystems, the rapid turnover of fine roots (≤2 mm in diameter) is a major pathway of carbon and nutrient flow from plants to the soil. This study was conducted to determine how fine root biomass (FRB), productivity (FRP) and turnover (FRT) are affected by site characteristics, seasonal variation, soil depth and tree girth size in sub‐tropical sal forest ecosystem. Four sites (S1, S2, S3 and S4) were established in the Bhabhar region of Nainital istrict, Uttarakhand, India within an elevational range of 405 and 580 m, and at each site, sal trees were categorized into five girth classes. Fine roots were sampled seasonally up to a depth of 60 cm and divided into three layers (0–20, 20–40 and 40–60 cm). FRB was significantly affected by tree girth size and decreased with increasing girth size, while the effect of tree girth on FRP and FRT was observed to be insignificant. Seasonal variation of FRB in all girth sizes showed a keen resemblance as the standing FRB reached its pinnacle during the rainy season and the bottom line in the winter season. Maximum FRB was reported for the uppermost, organo‐mineral‐rich soil depth (0–20 cm) at 1.0 m distance from the tree bole and decreased with increasing soil depth and distance from the tree bole while FRT showed a reverse trend. The present study provided a holistic outlook on variations in FRB, FRP and FRT and the impact of edaphic characteristics and tree girth on fine root dynamics in the sal forest ecosystem of Central Himalaya, India.

Community Structure, Regeneration Status and Tree Biomass of Shorea robusta Gaertn. in Charpala Community Forest, Rupandehi District, Central Nepal

Sal is a multipurpose tropical tree that grows as the dominant plant species in Nepal’s lowlands. A comparative study of the Sal population structure was carried out in two blocks of Charpala Community Forest, Rupandehi. A total of 161 species of vascular plants, belonging to 135 genera and 69 families, were recorded, where Fabaceae (26 species) was the dominant family. Densities of Sal trees, saplings, and seedlings per hectare were 4000, 1945, and 742 respectively. A reverse J-shaped curve in the population structure of Block 1 indicated active natural regeneration. However, in Block 2, the lower densities of seedlings and saplings, and the higher densities of intermediate diameter classes indicated insufficient spontaneous regeneration. Average tree biomass and carbon stocks were 522.49 Mg/ha-1 and 245.57 Mg/ha-1, respectively. While Block 2 outperformed Block 1 in terms of tree density, carbon stock, and biomass, Block 1 had the higher density of seedlings and saplings, which improved the regeneration status of that site. Increased demand for lumber for construction has put existing Sal strands in Nepal under pressure. Therefore, a detailed study of its population makeup and natural renewal is crucial.

Nesting habitat suitability and breeding of Asian woollyneck (Ciconia episcopus) in Nepal

Asian woollyneck (Ciconia episcopus) is a large wading bird species whose conservation status has been recently down-listed, despite a lack of concrete information on its nesting ecology and breeding success. In this study, we report its breeding success and nest habitat suitability in Nepal from 39 nesting sites (2016–2020). Simal (Bombax ceiba) (n = 21), followed by sal tree(Shorea robusta) (n = 6), and rani-salla (Pinus roxburghii) (n = 4) were the most common tree with mean height of the nesting tree, nest height, and tree diameter being 30 ± 5.8 m (± SD), 25.20 ± 5.75 m, and 1.03 ± 0.35 m, respectively. Nesting and fledging success were recorded from 31 nesting attempts at 19 of these sites, with an estimated nesting success probability of 0.81 ± 0.07 and a mean fledging success of 1.94 ± 0.25 chicks per nest. MaxEnt modelling identified a total potential suitable nesting habitat area of 9.64% (14,228 km2) of the area in Nepal, with this located within 72 districts, mostly in the west. The modelling parameters suggest that slope, land use, and precipitation during the driest months were important determinants of nesting habitat suitability. We recommend that priority be given to conserving taller trees (especially simal) close to settlements and croplands of Nepal. Also, that future surveys should consider examining the districts highlighted by our model as being the most likely candidates for containing woollyneck nesting habitat, especially those (such as Dang District) where woollyneck nests have not been previously reported.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43388-022-00104-2.

Estimation of Carbon Sequestration in a Forest: A case study of Bhawal National Park, Gazipur

Carbon sequestration is a global strategy of reducing atmospheric carbon to tackle global warming and climate change. Since the industrial revolution, the atmospheric carbon has been concentrating, therefore, global warming is speeding up and ecosystems are destroyed which increases the threat for global environmental sustainability. To limit global warming to 1.50C, COPs recommendation to be implemented particularly stop and restore forest loss, and line up the financial sector with net zero by 2050. Also, the Kyoto protocol explore the opportunity of carbon trading for developing countries like Bangladesh which is also reinforced by the net zero strategy of IPCC. To assess the forest carbon sequestration potentials, Bangladesh needs to accurately measure its storage carbon using statistical validated methods. Compared to ideal situations considering size and population, forest land is inadequate in Bangladesh as a result, to get global benefit, the country should manage the carbon pool by assessing periodically and managing accordingly. This study follows the randomized block design for sampling and data collection from 9 plots of 100 m2 each. Each individual tree of a sample plot measured and recorded and a total 240 trees measured to get its GBH and individual height. Study area covers the core area of Bhawal National Park which is a planted forest dominated by Sal tree (shorea robusta). From the study it has been observed that 3.345-million-ton Carbon sequestrate (equivalent to 12.276-million-ton CO2) in the core area of Bhawal National Park which is 940 hectares. Very few older plants are found in the Bhawal national park, most of them were coppicing plants. This study report might be beneficial for the potential forest researchers to estimate sequestrate carbon and to achieve net zero of carbon emission also, h
 elps to create a foundation of carbon trading, therefore, the country might be benefited.

Under the Canopy of Sal Trees: A New Vocabulary of Performance in Sukracharya Rabha’s Minimal Theatre

This paper would be structuring and documenting Rabha’s theories of performance which are heavily laced with ecological concerns, and also his penchant for body-centric performances that explore the contact point between man and nature, the given and made, public zones and biospheres. The paper aims to capture the nuances of his unique ensemble called “green theatre,” something that is akin to a search for roots, a drive to cultivate an “intrinsic rural mechanism”, in the words of H. Kanhailal, a renowned theatre exponent and Rabha’s mentor. There is an urge to capture the ebb and flow of country life, humankind’s vital affinity with nature. Rabha fuses lifeworlds, bio-forms, and landscapes. He gives birth to new grammar and vocabulary of “physical theatre” by weaving the synergy of life into the fabric of performance.

Shorea robusta Gaertn.f : A review on its importance, entomological problems and management in the Indian sub-continent

Shorea robusta is an ecologically and economically important and dominant timber species in tropical forests of Indian sub-continent. Apart from strong, elastic and heavy heartwood timber, the coppice shoots of Sal are used for making household or agricultural implements and is a good source of firewood. Leaves are lopped for fodder and the flavonoids present in the leaves can be used as an active ingredient of several medicines. Additionally, the processed Sal seeds have a leading role in food and cosmetic sectors. The seed oil has become a significant foreign exchange earner for India. In India, Sal is one of the most affected species in terms of insect attack. Subsequently, insect damages, in varying degrees from seeds to finished products are the major reasons for decline in population of Sal forests. A total of 340 insect species belonging to 56 families under eight orders have been recorded that are associated with Sal in the country. About 145 insect species has been reported feeding on the green standing Sal trees which may be grouped as seed insects, nursery pests, defoliators, stem and root borers and sap suckers. Pammene theristis , for instance is responsible for heavy infestation of the seedlings and seeds of Sal. Major pest during nursery practice is Holotrichia consanguinea which lays eggs in the soil and grubs feed on the root system of the 2-3 years old seedlings of Sal. The major defoliators belong to the order Lepidoptera comprising of 93 species. Notably, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis , the most serious pest and a single species of heartwood borer of Sal is capable of attacking and killing healthy trees of any age and size. About 90 species of timber borers causes damage to Sal, of which six species feed on rotten logs or stumps. The current communication aims to provide a detailed account on different insect pests infesting Sal in India.