Saccadic Eye Research Articles

The quick-phase system.

Two types of rapid eye movements, saccades and quick phases (QP), share the same neural circuits, but have different purposes. Quick phases reset the eye in the orbit, avoiding an attempt to move the eyes beyond the oculomotor range. In general, QP move the eyes into the direction one is turning. This is useful because it brings the world toward which one is turning into view more quickly. Algorithms for deciding when to begin a QP, and how large it should be, move the eyes, on average, into the direction of turning. This makes it reasonable to assume that the afoveate QP system evolved to provide commands in a head-coordinate system. The saccadic system evolved in foveate animals on top of this system, and thus it is reasonable to assume it also provides commands in head coordinates.

Properties of rapid eye movements.

This chapter describes the metrics and kinematics of saccades and quick phases of nystagmus, including microsaccades and large eye-head saccades. Small saccades often display dynamic overshoot, predominantly in the abducting eye. Although the function of these overshoots is unclear, the return movement is saccadic in nature. The saccade kinematics can be quantified by stereotyped relations between amplitude, duration, peak eye velocity, and peak acceleration, which vary somewhat with the initial eye position and saccade direction (centripetal vs centrifugal), possibly due to ocular plant characteristics. Saccades in a structured light environment are considerably faster than when executed in total darkness, although the origin for this facilitation is not known. The horizontal and vertical components of slant saccades are coupled, approximately matching their durations, for which possible underlying neural mechanisms are discussed. The chapter closes with a cross-species comparison of saccade characteristics.

A Map Construction Method Based on the Cognitive Mechanism of Rat Brain Hippocampus

The entorhinal-hippocampus structure in the mammalian brain is the core area for realizing spatial cognition. However, the visual perception and loop detection methods in the current biomimetic robot navigation model still rely on traditional visual SLAM schemes and lack the process of exploring and applying biological visual methods. Based on this, we propose a map construction method that mimics the entorhinal-hippocampal cognitive mechanism of the rat brain according to the response of entorhinal cortex neurons to eye saccades in recent related studies. That is, when mammals are free to watch the scene, the entorhinal cortex neurons will encode the saccade position of the eyeball to realize the episodic memory function. The characteristics of this model are as follows: 1) A scene memory algorithm that relies on visual saccade vectors is constructed to imitate the biological brain's memory of environmental situation information matches the current scene information with the memory; 2) According to the information transmission mechanism formed by the hippocampus and the activation theory of spatial cells, a localization model based on the grid cells of the entorhinal cortex and the place cells of the hippocampus was constructed; 3) Finally, the scene memory algorithm is used to correct the errors of the positioning model and complete the process of constructing the cognitive map. The model was subjected to simulation experiments on publicly available datasets and physical experiments using a mobile robot platform to verify the environmental adaptability and robustness of the algorithm. The algorithm will provide a basis for further research into bionic robot navigation.

Relationship between miR-203a inhibition and oil-induced toxicity in early life stage zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA, miR) by environmental stressors influences the transcription of mRNA which may impair organism development and/or lead to adverse physiological outcomes. Early studies evaluating the effects of oil on developmental toxicity in early life stages of fish showed that reductions in expression of miR-203a were associated with enhanced expression of downstream mRNAs that predicted altered eye development, cardiovascular disease, and improper fin development. To better understand the effects of miR-203a inhibition as an outcome of oil-induced toxicity in early life stage (ELS) fish, embryonic zebrafish were injected with an miR-203a inhibitor or treated with 3.5 µM phenanthrene (Phe) as a positive control for morphological alterations of cardiovascular and eye development caused by oil. Embryos treated with Phe had diminished levels of miR-203a at 7 and 72 h after injection. Embryos treated with the miR-203a inhibitor and Phe exhibited a reduced heart rate by 48 h post fertilization (hpf), with an increased incidence of developmental deformities (including pericardial edema, altered eye development, and spinal deformities) and reduced caudal fin length by 72 hpf. There were significant reductions in lens and eye diameters in 120 hpf miR-203a-inhibitor and Phe-treated fish, as well as a significantly reduced number of eye saccades, determined by an optokinetic response (OKR) behavioral assay. The expression of vegfa, which is an important activator during neovascularization, was significantly upregulated in embryos receiving miR-203a inhibitor injections by 7 and 72 hpf with increased trends in vegfa expression in 72 hpf larvae treated with Phe. There were decreasing trends in crx, neurod1, and pde6h expression by 72 hpf in miR-203a inhibitor and Phe treatments, which are involved in photoreceptor function in developing eyes and regulated by miR-203a. These results suggest that an inhibition of miR-203a in ELS fish exhibits an oil-induced toxic response that is consistent with Phe treatment and specifically impacts retinal, cardiac, and fin development in ELS fish.

Superior colliculus drives stimulus-evoked directionally biased saccades and attempted head movements in head-fixed mice

Animals investigate their environments by directing their gaze towards salient stimuli. In the prevailing view, mouse gaze shifts entail head rotations followed by brainstem-mediated eye movements, including saccades to reset the eyes. These 'recentering' saccades are attributed to head movement-related vestibular cues. However, microstimulating mouse superior colliculus (SC) elicits directed head and eye movements resembling SC-dependent sensory-guided gaze shifts in other species, suggesting that mouse gaze shifts may be more flexible than has been recognized. We investigated this possibility by tracking eye and attempted head movements in a head-fixed preparation that eliminates head movement-related sensory cues. We found tactile stimuli evoke directionally biased saccades coincident with attempted head rotations. Differences in saccade endpoints across stimuli are associated with distinct stimulus-dependent relationships between initial eye position and saccade direction and amplitude. Optogenetic perturbations revealed SC drives these gaze shifts. Thus, head-fixed mice make sensory-guided, SC-dependent gaze shifts involving coincident, directionally biased saccades and attempted head movements. Our findings uncover flexibility in mouse gaze shifts and provide a foundation for studying head-eye coupling.

Eye tracking and tourism research: A systematic literature review

In recent years, the number of studies in tourism using the eye tracking technique has increased and started generating valuable information for both academics and the industry. However, there is a gap in the literature concerning systematic reviews focused on recent articles and their findings. Thus, the aim of this study is to close this gap by systematically analysing 70 research papers tackling the subject of eye tracking in tourism and published in highly ranked tourism journals. The study identifies the most popular topics and trends for eye tracking research, as well as the most used types of visual stimuli, such as exhibitions, restaurant menus, promotional pictures or websites. The study also details on measurements specific for the analysis of eye tracking data, including fixations, saccades and heat maps. Results are emphasized along with their theoretical and practical implications. In addition, we highlight the lack of the use of dynamic stimuli in the existing literature and suggest further research directions using the eye tracking technique.

MIF versus SIF Motoneurons, What Are Their Respective Contribution in the Oculomotor Medial Rectus Pool?

Multiply-innervated muscle fibers (MIFs) are peculiar to the extraocular muscles as they are non-twitch but produce a slow build up in tension on repetitive stimulation. The motoneurons innervating MIFs establish en grappe terminals along the entire length of the fiber, instead of the typical en plaque terminals that singly-innervated muscle fibers (SIFs) motoneurons establish around the muscle belly. MIF motoneurons have been proposed to participate only in gaze holding and slow eye movements. We aimed to discern the function of MIF motoneurons by recording medial rectus motoneurons of the oculomotor nucleus. Single-unit recordings in awake cats demonstrated that electrophysiologically-identified medial rectus MIF motoneurons participated in different types of eye movements, including fixations, rapid eye movements or saccades, convergences, and the slow and fast phases of the vestibulo-ocular nystagmus, the same as SIF motoneurons did. However, MIF medial rectus motoneurons presented lower firing frequencies, were recruited earlier and showed lower eye position (EP) and eye velocity (EV) sensitivities than SIF motoneurons. MIF medial rectus motoneurons were also smaller, had longer antidromic latencies and a lower synaptic coverage than SIF motoneurons. Peristimulus time histograms (PSTHs) revealed that electrical stimulation to the myotendinous junction, where palisade endings are located, did not recurrently affect the firing probability of medial rectus motoneurons. Therefore, we conclude there is no division of labor between MIF and SIF motoneurons based on the type of eye movement they subserve.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In addition to the common singly-innervated muscle fiber (SIF), extraocular muscles also contain multiply-innervated muscle fibers (MIFs), which are non-twitch and slow in contraction. MIF motoneurons have been proposed to participate only in gaze holding and slow eye movements. In the present work, by single-unit extracellular recordings in awake cats, we demonstrate, however, that both SIF and MIF motoneurons, electrophysiologically-identified, participate in the different types of eye movements. However, MIF motoneurons showed lower firing rates (FRs), recruitment thresholds, and eye-related sensitivities, and could thus contribute to the fine adjustment of eye movements. Electrical stimulation of the myotendinous junction activates antidromically MIF motoneurons but neither MIF nor SIF motoneurons receive a synaptic reafferentation that modifies their discharge probability.

Mechanisms of punctuated vision in fly flight

To guide locomotion, animals control gaze via movements of their eyes, head, and/or body, but how the nervous system controls gaze during complex motor tasks remains elusive. In many animals, shifts in gaze consist of periods of smooth movement punctuated by rapid eye saccades. Notably, eye movements are constrained by anatomical limits, which requires resetting eye position. By studying tethered, flying fruit flies (Drosophila), we show that flies perform stereotyped head saccades to reset gaze, analogous to optokinetic nystagmus in primates. Head-reset saccades interrupted head smooth movement for as little as 50ms-representing less than 5% of the total flight time-thereby enabling punctuated gaze stabilization. By revealing the passive mechanics of the neck joint, we show that head-reset saccades leverage the neck's natural elastic recoil, enabling mechanically assisted redirection of gaze. The consistent head orientation at saccade initiation, the influence of the head's angular position on saccade rate, the decrease in wing saccade frequency in head-fixed flies, and the decrease in head-reset saccade rate in flies with their head range of motion restricted together implicate proprioception as the primary trigger of head-reset saccades. Wing-reset saccades were influenced by head orientation, establishing a causal link between neck sensory signals and the execution of body saccades. Head-reset saccades were abolished when flies switched to a landing state, demonstrating that head movements are gated by behavioral state. We propose a control architecture for active vision systems with limits in sensor range of motion. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

VHIT Testing of Vertical Semicircular Canals With Goggles Yield Different Results Depending on Which Canal Plane Being Tested.

Objective: The use of goggles to assess vertical semicircular canal function has become a standard method in vestibular testing, both in clinic and in research, but there are different methods and apparatus in use. The aim of this study was to determine what the cause of the systematic differences is between gain values in testing of the vertical semicircular canals with two different video head impulse test (vHIT) equipment in subjects with normal vestibular function.Study Design: Retrospective analysis of gain values on patients with clinically deemed normal vestibular function (absence of a corrective eye saccade), tested with either Interacoustics or Otometrics system. Prospective testing of subjects with normal vestibular function with the camera records the eye movements of both eyes. Finally, 3D sensors were placed on different positions on the goggles measuring the actual vertical movement in the different semicircular planes.Results: In the clinical cohorts, the gain depended on which side and semicircular canal was tested (p < 0.001). In the prospective design, the combination between the stimulated side, semicircular canal, and position of the recording device (right/left eye) highly influenced the derived gain (p < 0.001). The different parts of the goggles also moved differently in a vertical direction during vertical semicircular canal testing.Conclusion: The gain values when testing the function of the vertical semicircular canals seem to depend upon which eye is recorded and which semicircular plane is tested and suggests caution when interpreting and comparing results when different systems are used both clinically as well as in research. The results also imply that further research and development are needed to obtain accurate vertical semicircular canal testing, in regard to both methodology and equipment design.

Screen Time and Developmental Eye Movement Testing in Middle School Students

Background: Screen time continues to increase among children and youth, yet little is known about its potential effects on oculomotor development and function. The aims of the current study were to (a) compare oculomotor function in children today to those tested before smartphone use and (b) explore correlations between screen time use and oculomotor function among children today. Method: A retrospective comparison was conducted comparing normative data published in the Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) Test manual in 1990, prior to the invention of smart devices, to data collected in 2020. Correlations between screen time and DEM variables were also explored within the current sample. Results: Sixty middle school students reported spending on average 45.5 hours/week on screens with approximately 18.5 hours/week on iPhones, 14.5 hours/week on television and 10.5 hours/week on computers. Surprisingly, DEM performance was not significantly improved in the current sample compared to the historical sample. There were also no significant correlations between any screen time variables and oculomotor metrics within the current sample. Conclusion: Despite the significant increase in screen time usage since 1990, DEM performance was replicable among 6th, 7th, and 8th grader students tested 30 years later. A statistically significant difference was found among 7th graders on DEM Vertical, where the 2020 students performed slower however, this difference may not be clinically significant. Importantly, DEM Ratio, a key variable for identifying ocular motility dysfunction (OMD), was also not significantly different between 1990 and 2020. Moreover, screen time in the current sample did not correlate with any DEM variables. This study provides preliminary evidence indicating that as measured by the DEM Test, increased screen time may not affect ocular motility. Further research is warranted using more finite methods for measuring saccade and smooth pursuit eye movements during the use of screened devices.

Watching Movies Unfold, a Frame-by-Frame Analysis of the Associated Neural Dynamics.

Our lives unfold as sequences of events. We experience these events as seamless, although they are composed of individual images captured in between the interruptions imposed by eye blinks and saccades. Events typically involve visual imagery from the real world (scenes), and the hippocampus is frequently engaged in this context. It is unclear, however, whether the hippocampus would be similarly responsive to unfolding events that involve abstract imagery. Addressing this issue could provide insights into the nature of its contribution to event processing, with relevance for theories of hippocampal function. Consequently, during magnetoencephalography (MEG), we had female and male humans watch highly matched unfolding movie events composed of either scene image frames that reflected the real world, or frames depicting abstract patterns. We examined the evoked neuronal responses to each image frame along the time course of the movie events. Only one difference between the two conditions was evident, and that was during the viewing of the first image frame of events, detectable across frontotemporal sensors. Further probing of this difference using source reconstruction revealed greater engagement of a set of brain regions across parietal, frontal, premotor, and cerebellar cortices, with the largest change in broadband (1–30 Hz) power in the hippocampus during scene-based movie events. Hippocampal engagement during the first image frame of scene-based events could reflect its role in registering a recognizable context perhaps based on templates or schemas. The hippocampus, therefore, may help to set the scene for events very early on.

Sex Differences in Electronic Health Record Navigation Strategies: Secondary Data Analysis.

BackgroundUse of electronic health records (EHRs) has increased dramatically over the past decade. Their widespread adoption has been plagued with numerous complaints about usability, with subsequent impacts on patient safety and provider well-being. Data in other fields suggest biological sex impacts basic patterns of navigation in electronic media.ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine whether biological sex impacted physicians’ navigational strategies while using EHRs.MethodsThis is a secondary analysis of a prior study where physicians were given verbal and written signout, and then, while being monitored with an eye tracker, were asked to review a simulated record in our institution’s EHR system, which contained 14 patient safety items. Afterward, the number of safety items recognized was recorded.ResultsA total of 93 physicians (female: n=46, male: n=47) participated in the study. Two gaze patterns were identified: one characterized more so by saccadic (“scanning”) eye movements and the other characterized more so by longer fixations (“staring”). Female physicians were more likely to use the scanning pattern; they had a shorter mean fixation duration (P=.005), traveled more distance per minute of screen time (P=.03), had more saccades per minute of screen time (P=.02), and had longer periods of saccadic movement (P=.03). The average proportion of time spent staring compared to scanning (the Gaze Index [GI]) across all participants was approximately 3:1. Females were more likely than males to have a GI value <3.0 (P=.003). At the extremes, males were more likely to have a GI value >5, while females were more likely to have a GI value <1. Differences in navigational strategy had no impact on task performance.ConclusionsFemales and males demonstrate fundamentally different navigational strategies while navigating the EHR. This has potentially significant impacts for usability testing in EHR training and design. Further studies are needed to determine if the detected differences in gaze patterns produce meaningful differences in cognitive load while using EHRs.

E-스포츠에서 숙련성과 상태불안상황에 따른 시선도약과 시선고정 차이 검증

본 연구의 목적은 e-스포츠에서 상태불안과 숙련성에 따라 시선도약과 시선고정의 차이를 살펴보는 것이다. 이를 위해 배틀그라운드 통계 홈페이지를 참고하여 랭킹이 상위 18% 이상인 숙련자 10명과 하위 30%미만인 비숙련자 10명, 총 20명을 대상으로 연구를 진행하였다. 상태불안은 심박수를 통해 측정하였고, 참여자의 시선도약과 시선고정 측정은 아이트랙(Tobii Pro Glasses 2)을 사용하였다. 연구결과 상태불안에 따라 숙련자와 비숙련자의 시선이동과 시선고정에서 차이가 존재하였다. 상태불안이 높을수록 숙련자가 비숙련자에 비해 시선이동이 낮게 나타났고, 시선고정에서도 높은 상태불안에서 숙련자의 시선고정 시간이 비숙련자보다 짧았다. 본 연구결과를 바탕으로 e-스포츠에서 지각연구의 방향성에 대해서 논하였고, 연구를 진행하면서 제기된 한계점 또한 제시하였다.

A STUDY OF FIELD GEOTHERMAL POWER POTENTIAL &amp; THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS OF PROSPECTIVE BINARY POWER CYCLE BASED GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT FOR TATAPANI GEOTHERMAL FIELD.

Dyslexia is a neuro developmental reading disorder that degrades the speed and accuracy of word recogni- tion, and as a consequence, impedes reading fluency and text comprehension. Between 5 and 10 percent of the population are normally affected by it. It has long been known that the eye movements of dyslexic readers differ from those of typical readers. The dataset for this study has been taken from the dataset used by a similar study (Benfatto et al., 2016). The experiments reported by the authors are based on eye tracking data from 185 subjects participating in the Kronoberg reading development project, a longitudinal research project on reading development and reading disability in Swedish school children running between 1989 and 2010. For our present study, we use eye movement recordings made while the subjects were reading a short natural passage of text adapted to their age. Recordings were available for 185 subjects, 97 High Risk (HR) subjects (76 males and 21 females) and 88 Low Risk(LR) subjects (69 males and 19 females Machine learning based predictive model developed in this study employ feature set based on eye fixations and saccades parameters and can be used to give individual level diagnosis with high sensitivity and specificity. Using statistical cross-validation techniques on a sample of 97 dyslexic and 88 control subjects, we achieve a classification accuracy of over 96% with balanced levels of sensitivity and specificity. Diagnostic follow-up of a screening result is always necessary so that intervention strategies can be personalized. Nevertheless, early identification of individuals in need of support is the first important step in this process and using eye tracking along with this system during reading may prove very useful. The system’s accuracy can be further enhanced by collecting a larger sample and then training these and other classification models.

Desktop lighting for comfortable use of a computer screen.

BACKGROUND:The contrast between a bright computer screen and a dark ambient environment may influence comfort of the users, especially on their eyes.OBJECTIVE:The objective of this research is to identify the optimal desktop lighting for the comfortable use of the computer screen in a dark environment.METHODS:An experiment was designed where seven illumination setups were introduced for the users to perform their leisure tasks on a computer screen. Fifteen healthy subjects participated in the experiments. During each session, durations of the eye blinks, fixations and saccades of the user were recorded by an eye tracker. His/her neck and trunk movements were recorded by a motion tracking system as well. The comfort/discomfort questionnaire, localized postural discomfort questionnaire, NASA task load index and computer user questionnaire were used to record the overall comfort/discomfort, the local perceived physical discomfort, the cognitive workload, and general/eye health problems, respectively.RESULTS:Subjective and objective measurement results indicated that users felt more comfortable with high intensity warm lights using a computer screen. We also identified that the eye fixation durations, as well as the scores of two questions in the computer user questionnaire, have significant negative correlations with comfort. On the other side, the durations of blinks and the scores of three questions in the computer user questionnaire, were significantly correlated with discomfort.CONCLUSION:The warm (3000K) and high intensity (1500 lux) light reduced the visual and cognitive fatigue of the user and therefore improve the comfort of the user during the use of a computer screen.

A study of monocular near‐to‐eye display positions for a navigation task

AbstractWearable computers with near‐eye‐displays (NEDs) are expected to be fundamental components of the future smart systems, for which several companies are concurrently working. NEDs are designed and commercially available with different display locations; at the top, middle, or bottom of one of the eyes. It is not known how the location of displays and the nature of tasks would influence the comfort of users. In this study, the effects of display positions and the number of turns on visual discomfort of wearing NEDs during navigation tasks were evaluated. The experiment considered four display positions and three number of turns for 2D maze navigation tasks. The eye movement data were recorded by using a Tobii eye tracker, and then blink rates, eye movement velocities, saccades rates, and subjective ratings were analyzed. The results have shown that the blink rates, saccades rate, and eye movement velocities were sensitive to the positions of the displays, where the top‐right was marginally more comfortable display position. However, subjective ratings did not show significant differences. It is concluded that monocular NEDs can be used for shorter duration navigation tasks, with a reasonably acceptable level of visual comfort.

Influence of prior and visual information on eye movements in amblyopic children.

This study analyzed the characteristics of pursuit and assessed the influence of prior and visual information on eye velocity and saccades in amblyopic and control children, in comparison to adults. Eye movements of 41 children (21 amblyopes and 20 controls) were compared to eye movements of 55 adults (18 amblyopes and 37 controls). Participants were asked to pursue a target moving at a constant velocity. The target was either a 'standard' target, with a uniform color intensity, or a 'noisy' target, with blurry edges, to mimic the blurriness of an amblyopic eye. Analysis of pursuit patterns showed that the onset was delayed, and the gain was decreased in control children with a noisy target in comparison to amblyopic or control children with a standard target. Furthermore, a significant effect of prior and visual information on pursuit velocity and saccades was found across all participants. Moreover, the modulation of the effect of visual information on the pursuit velocity by group, that is amblyopes or controls with a standard target, and controls with a noisy target, was more limited in children. In other words, the effect of visual information was higher in control adults with a standard target compared to control children with the same target. However, in the case of a blurry target, either in control participants with a noisy target or in amblyopic participants with a standard target, the effect of visual information was larger in children.

Abnormal eye movements in patients with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder

To analyze the characteristics of eye movements in patients with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (iRBD). Twenty two patients with iRBD and 20 controls were enrolled between January 2017 and May 2019 from Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine. Clinical data including polysomnogram (PSG) results were collected. Videonystagmography (VNG) including spontaneous nystagmus, gaze, saccade, tracking and optokinetic test were performed. The difference of VNG results between iRBD patients and controls were analyzed. The factors related to the abnormal VNG results were analyzed by using logistic regression analysis. No significant differences were found between the iRBD and control groups in the spontaneous nystagmus, gaze nystagmus, square wave jerk, involuntary eye movement, saccade and optokinetic nystagmus (all P>0.05). In smooth pursuit of 0.4-0.5 Hz and 0.6-0.7 Hz, iRBD patients had more type Ⅲ-Ⅳ curve than controls (χ2=5.177 and 5.301, both P<0.05). Logistic regression analysis indicated that less sleep time of N3 stage was related to the abnormal results in smooth pursuit of 0.4-0.5 Hz (OR=0.963, P<0.05). iRBD patients with Ⅲ-Ⅳ type curve in smooth pursuit of 0.4-0.5 Hz had less N3 sleep time than iRBD patients with Ⅰ-Ⅱ type curve (52±28 min vs. 76±23 min, t=2.197, P<0.05). Abnormal smooth pursuit was found in iRBD patients, which might be related to the pathological mechanism of iRBD.

The More-or-Less Morphing Face Illusion Revisited: Perceiving Natural Transient Changes in Faces Despite Fast Saccades.

van Lier and Koning introduced the more-or-less morphing face illusion: The detection of changes in a constantly morphing face-sequence is strongly suppressed by fast eye saccades triggered by a moving fixation dot. Modulators of this intriguing effect were investigated with systematically varied facial stimuli (e.g., human faces from varying morphological groups, emotional states) and fixation location. Results replicated the overall pattern of moving fixations substantially reducing the sensitivity to detect transitions. Importantly, a deviation from real to perceived changes could only be detected when faces were altered in a way not happening in real world—by changing identity. When emotional states of faces were changed, people were capable of perceiving these changes: A situation very similar to everyday life where we might quickly inspect a face by executing fast eye saccades but where we are still aware of transient changes of the emotional state of the very same person.

Time to pay attention to attention: using attention-based process traces to better understand consumer decision-making

This paper examines consumers’ attention traces (e.g., sequences of eye fixations and saccades) during choice. Due to reduced equipment cost and increased ease of analysis, attention traces can reflect a more fine-grained representation of decision-making activities (e.g., formation of a consideration set, alternative evaluation, and decision strategies). Besides enabling a better understanding of actual consumer choice, attention traces support more complex models of choice, and point to the prospects of specific interventions at various stages of the choice process. We identify and discuss promising areas for future research.