Rwandan Society Research Articles

Aplikovaný výzkum fenoménu dehumanizace ve Rwandě

The study discusses the applied research conducted by the author in Rwanda. The aim was to confirm or refute the basic thesis of the key relevance of situational factors for the construction of dehumanization and the initiation of mass violence in Rwandan society in general. The respondents in the field research were perpetrators and victims of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Semi-structured interview was chosen as the qualitative research method.

The Role of the Catholic Church in the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda

Studies in the sphere of history and culture of the African continent attract an increasing interest given the ongoing development of African countries, the reinforcement of ties with Russia as well as the erosion of stereotypes about the nations that populate these territories. This article suggests that the Catholic Church played a significant role in the formation of the Rwandese society in 1890–1994, with the genocide of 1994 being one of the central events. In the framework of the study, the author seeks to reveal the background of the genocide that became the culmination of long-lasting contradictions between Hutu and Tutsi in Rwandan society. One of the main goals of the research was to investigate how the terms Hutu and Tutsi were transformed from social to quasi-ethnic ones. Special attention in this regard was paid to the role of the Catholic Church in the destruction of Rwandan collective self-identification, the growth of tribalism, and antagonism within the society. The article employs the methods of content analysis, case study, event analysis, discourse analysis and interview to research the official position of the Catholic Church during the genocide as well as the actions of specific priests, which is crucial for understanding the controversial role of the Church in the tragedy. Starting from the colonial period the Catholic Church had a vast influence not only in the spiritual but also in the social sphere, including education and mass media. Analyzing the empowerment of the Hutu in Rwanda, in general and especially within the Catholic Church in the country, the author traces back the evolution of social relations in the second half of the 20th century in order to help understand the particular historical role of the Church in the country and in relations between the Hutu and Tutsi along with their quest for power. The author concludes that one of the most interesting issues is the merging of the church’s elite and radical political leadership of Rwanda, which resulted in the further degradation of social relations in the country, growing mutual tensions between Hutu and Tutsi and, in the long run, the genocide. The post genocide analysis of the Catholic Church’s politics reveals not only tools used by the institute to facilitate national reconciliation but also the measure of responsibility for the genocide that it has agreed to take.

Beneficiaries Empowerment and Sustainability of Non-Governmental Organization Projects in Rwanda: A Case of Send a Cow Rwanda Jyambere Project

This research analyzed how beneficiary empowerment affects the sustainability of NGO projects in Rwanda. The key characteristics that significantly help communities to empower themselves and promote sustainable development were discussed in detail and finally validated. More specifically, the study evaluated the impact of capacity building, material resources and partnerships on the sustainability of the Send a Cow Jyambere project in Rwanda. The study used descriptive research design with both quantitative and qualitative methods. The population of this study consisted of 5 technical project staff, 120 peer farmers and para-veterinaries and 1520 direct project beneficiaries. Thus, the total population was1645 individuals.  Stratified random sampling was used to select 322 respondents as sample size. The survey used questionnaires and interviews to collect data. Descriptive and inferential analyses such as frequencies, percentages, correlations and regressions were used to present the quantitative data in tabular and graphical form using SPSS version 23. This study targeted to be of utmost importance to the researcher, future researchers, Mount Kenya University, the Jyambere project and the Rwandan society at large. The Pearson correlation analysis between capacity building (r=0.772, p=0.000), material resource (r=0.613, p=0.000) and partnership (r=0.631, p=0.000) against project sustainability showed that capacity building was found to have a positive and statistically significant correlation. The analysis of regression coefficients showed that capacity building (β1=0.511, p=0.000) material resource (β2=0.374 p=0.000) and partnership (β1=0.201, p=0.000) all have positive and statistically significant effect on project sustainability since the p-values are less than 5%. This study has empirically demonstrated that beneficiaries’ empowerment plays a significant role in ensuring that projects are sustainable. Therefore, the researcher recommends that project managers should embrace best practices that enhance beneficiaries’ empowerment such as incorporating capacity building, provide necessary material resources that equip beneficiaries ready to work by themselves as well as partnership with other parties. The government and the regulatory bodies should be keen to promote such projects which are community-based. Keywords: Beneficiaries Empowerment, Sustainability, Capacity Building, Material Resource, Partnerships &nbsp

The role of Radio-Télévision Libre des Mille Collines in the Rwandan genocide : An analysis from the theoretical perspectives of intergroup threat and aggression

This research focuses on the role of Radio-Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM) in the Rwandan genocide. It analyzes the radio broadcasts through the prism of theories of intergroup threat and aggression. In this perspective, this medium is conceived as a manipulative and propagandist agent which participated in the perpetration of mass killings constituting the Rwandan genocide, through the dissemination of the ideology of hatred before and during the genocide and the logistical assistance provided to those involved in the killings. Indeed, RTLM broadcasts were structured in such a way as to present the Hutu as victims (intergroup threat), with the aim of justifying the use of violent actions against Tutsi (intergroup aggression). The corpus to be analyzed consists of extracts from RTLM broadcasts selected from transcripts stored at the Montreal Institute of Genocide and Human Rights Studies (MIGS) and at the International Monitor Institute (IMI). These extracts were analyzed with the method of discourse analysis. They reveal that RTLM’s discourse was based on the victimization and glorification of Hutus, as well as the devaluation and demonization of Tutsis. Concretely, the radio broadcasts were structured in such a way as to incite Hutu (past and present victims of injustice) to exterminate Tutsi (the enemies, the "cockroaches" (inyenzi)) and to eradicate them from Rwandan society. They were built around two main themes, including the threat, which includes elements like propaganda and hatred, homogenization, categorization and victimization ; and aggressiveness which includes the revolutionary vision of Rwanda, the deshumanization of Tutsi, their designation as enemies, the search for a just and homogeneous society.

Civic education in Rwanda: the impact of the Itorero program

The authors discuss the transformation in civic education in Rwanda. Before the arrival of the colonizers, Rwanda had traditions in education and uniting societies. Colonialism destroyed the educational system and divided the society. The re-introduction of the traditional system has been also explored – the example of the Itorero program and its impact on the unity and reconciliation efforts of the government – on the basis of various conducted studies. The main aspects that are taken into account in this study include: the significance of civic education, the Itorero program and the best predictors of success, and the role of civic education in promoting the well-being of communities and nations. The authors not only analyze the functioning of the Itorero institution, but also aim to seek answers to the questions of whether and to what extent the Itorero program affects civic education and to what extent it is an effective tool for uniting the Rwandan society.

GACACA - "inny" wymiar sprawiedliwości

The system of Gacaca courts is a transitional justice system, implemented in Rwanda in order to bring to justice perpetrators of 1994 genocide and reconcile Rwandan society. Complexity of Gacaca’s objectives, its hybridity, and different possible perspectives for analysis lead to difficulties in formulating appropriate criteria for coherent assessment of the system. As the economic crisis in Rwanda was the most direct cause of escalation of violence in 1994 and economic problems in the country have been most often indicated by Rwandans and government officials as the most important problem in Rwanda following genocide the author turns to Gacaca’s contribution to economic growth as the most objective criterium to assess Gacaca’s success in transforming Rwandan society. Implementation of Gacaca and introduction of community service programme enabled the return to the society of a substantial part of the working-age population making the economic development of Rwanda possible.

Prevalence and associates of depression among rural and urban Rwandan mothers and their daughters 26 years after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi

Background: Mental disorders continue to be a challenge for Rwandan society, especially for women after the genocide against the Tutsi. The risk of inheritance of mental disorders is eminent. We therefore conducted a study on the prevalence of depression among grandmothers and their daughters using quantitative data. This paper explains in detail why and how the dataset was created, and it describes the dataset itself. This will allow readers to easily access and use the data. Methods: A sample of 309 dyads of mothers and daughters was recruited. Data were collected using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview, Life Events Questionnaire and the Social Demographics Questionnaire. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, logistic regression, and one-way ANOVA.

In the Aftermath: The Post-Conflict Social and Economic Consequences of Rescue During Genocide

ABSTRACT During the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, some individuals risked their lives to save others. While much research has analyzed why people rescue during genocide, no studies have systematically analyzed the post-conflict consequences of engaging in such actions. This article begins to fill this gap by treating rescue as a case of behavioural boundary crossing, or individual defection from the expectations of a behavioral script. We rely upon 45 in-depth interviews with Rwandan Hutu who rescued Tutsi and who also did not participate in genocidal violence. Our findings indicate that rescue may be tied to both positive and negative social and economic consequences, from gifts and public recognition to stigma and threats. We suggest that many of these consequences result from the fact that Hutu who rescued went against the expectations of their group. As the positive consequences were often driven by Tutsi and the negative consequences were driven by Hutu, we also suggest that such consequences are tied to fault lines between groups in Rwandan society. Our work consequently aligns with and extends previous research finding that the genocide produced, reinforced, and augmented social cleavages in Rwanda.

English

The Rwandan genocide, seen as the result of years of ethnic antagonization and segmentation, was followed by a political effort leading to the restructuration of Rwandan national identity in order to unify the society and eventually achieve national reconciliation. By implementing measures such as the removal of ethnic affiliation on national identity documents, or by reforming the national education curriculum, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RFP), governing the country since 1994 under the leadership of the President Paul Kagame, aimed at the progressive obliteration of the ethnic frame of references in the Rwandan society. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the dynamics of obliteration of the ethnic factor in the Rwandan state narrative and to study, under a multidimensional lens, the post-genocide nation-building processes.     Key words: Ethnicity, ethnic denialism, genocide, nation building, civic transition.

A Sociolinguistic Study of Women Representation in Rwandan Proverbs

In almost all communities, proverbs reflect every aspect of the social and cultural lives of people. In Rwandan culture proverbs embed wisdom, values, norms, and social restriction. As in other languages, in Kinyarwanda, proverbs are used as a tool for human communication. Kinyarwanda proverbs have certainly the features of gender as they disclose the real and normal life of Rwandans. Gender-related Kinyarwanda proverbs that value women are referred to when valuing women's role in the community. This contributes to the journey of women’s emancipation that Rwanda is currently fostering. However, there are some negative proverbs that strengthen the roots of gender discrimination linked to patriarchal social norms and practices. Despite an outstanding progress in women’s empowerment and gender promotion that Rwanda has made, Kinyarwanda proverbs still contribute to women exclusiveness in a way that attributes negative traits to them. Thus, the gender discrimination persists. This paper reveals the findings of a study on the socio-linguistic perspectives that explore the place and role of women and/or girls in the Rwandan society. Therefore, this paper outlines Kinyarwanda proverbs that loop women and girls in a negative perspective, and their effects in achieving Rwanda Vision 2050 goals and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This study examines 30 Kinyarwanda proverbs related to disempowerment of women and girls. They were analyzed by using the feminist theories of the Radicals and Critical Discourse Analysis by Norman Fairclough. Keywords: Proverbs, gender equality, Vision 2050, SDGs. DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/10-24-02 Publication date: December 31 st 2020

Rwandan Genocide Conflict Represented in the Novel “Led by Faith”

This study discusses the ethnic conflict in the Rwandan genocide in the novel Led by Faith: Rising from The Ashes of Rwandan Genocide written by Immaculée Ilibagiza. The novel is set in Rwanda, the country that was known as the place of the fastest killing in the world history, within 100 days killed more than 800.000 people. This novel is based on the author’s experience in surviving from the Rwandan genocide. Therefore, it is interesting to discuss how the author represented the genocide in the novel. This study applied conflict theory by Dahrendorf which focus on four aspect: Two aspects of society (conflict and consensus), power and authority, the groups involved in the conflict, and conflict and social change. The data are taken from the novel Led by Faith by using descriptive analysis techniques. The study reveals that the conflict between Hutu and Tutsi ethnics was represented as the power dynamics among the authorities. The conflict influenced the social change and social structure of the Rwandan society.

Implementasi Prinsip Fair Trade oleh The Body Shop sebagai Upaya Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Rwanda

The second half of the twentieth century witnessed unprecedented growth in the number of international actors. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of non-state actors that, on many occasions, helped solve problems and improve lives. This makes the responsibility of people’s welfare no longer only held by the government. One of the most prominent examples is the role of Body Shop on improving the living standard of Rwandan. Twenty four years after the genocide that killed almost 800,000 people, the country of Rwanda is rebuilding with the support of international communities, including multinational corporations. The Body Shop’s Community Trade commitment has been a key part of bringing local producers into international supply chains and empowering them. Therefore, the research question in this paper is “How is the role of The Body Shop on implementing fair trade principles towards the Rwandan society?” To answer the research question, the authors use several theories and concepts; such as pluralism, multinational companies, and fair trade theory. In addition, the research method to be used by the authors is a qualitative study method. This research found that The Body Shop has launched a Moringa Community Trade program as an embodiment of efforts to improve the welfare of Rwandan people after the genocide occurred. This community trade initiative aims to be one small step forward to achieve financial stability for the people currently living and working in Rwanda.

Assembling Styles of Truth in Rwanda’s Gacaca Process

The gacaca process was introduced in Rwandan society to deal with the legacy of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi. Empirically informed research points to the ambiguous and ambivalent attitudes of participants regarding testimonial activities, namely the search for the truth. Hence the questions: what does the gacaca experience reveal about this elusive and multidimensional notion called ‘the truth’? And, what does ‘the truth’ as experienced by Rwandans reveal about the nature of the gacaca process? This article aims to answer these questions by identifying and qualifying the different styles of truth at work in the gacaca process, namely the forensic truth, the moral truth, the effectual truth and, the Truth-with-a-Capital-T. The first is a consequence of the design of the court system, the second is derived from the socio-cultural context, the third is a consequence of the decentralised milieu in which the gacaca courts were inserted, the fourth is the result of the overall political context in which the gacaca activities took place. This process of assembling these different styles of truths is conceptualised through the notion of agencement that captures the intricate interplay of agency and structure, contingency and structuration, change and organisation shaping the gacaca process.

Rwanda’s Forgotten Years

The narrative on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda has become remarkable in recent years for airbrushing the responsibility of those at its heart from the tragedy. The figure of President Juvenal Habyarimana, whose 21-year rule, along with the unofficial network based around his wife and family, the Akazu, has been largely marginalised. Yet to understand April 1994 requires a far longer-term understanding. Those responsible had grown their power, influence and ambition for decades inside every part of Rwandan society after seizing power in their coup of 1973; they had established personal and highly lucrative bonds with European and North American countries, financial institutions and the Vatican, all of whom variously assisted with financial, political, diplomatic and military support from 1973 into 1994. This chapter seeks to outline how Akazu built its powerbase, influence and ambition in the two decades before 1994 and the failure of its international backers to respond to repeated warning signs of a tragedy foretold.

Let’s spend a night together; i will increase your salary: an analysis of sextortion phenomenon in Rwandan society

ABSTRACT Sextortion as a severe form of sexual harassment, has always constituted a persistent social phenomenon that undermines gender equality in different societies. However, sextortion remains an under-researched field in many countries, especially in the non-Western world. Informed by feminist theories, this study analysed the causes and consequences of sextortion in Rwanda. A mixed-methods design was applied with qualitative data being collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with 150 respondents. Data analysis was inspired by a qualitative approach of thematic analysis. Emergent themes from the interviews were identified and coded using NVivo software, while SPSS software was useful to generate descriptive statistics in order to characterise the data set based on its properties. Key findings include the dearth of reporting cases of sextortion and its laws; persistence of patriarchal system; gender income inequality and an increase in the unemployment rate as the main causes of sextortion. The decline of victims’ economic status; psychological and health problems; an increase of gender inequality and domestic violence; a decrease of productivity and credibility; and deterioration of various human rights were among the main consequences of this phenomenon. These findings bear significant practical implications including the fact that sextortion may undermine efforts to end gender inequality.

Erkenning binnen de gacaca-rechtspraak in Rwanda

The Rwandan gacaca courts that dealt with the legacy of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi were inspired by a customary conflict resolution mechanism also known as gacaca – meaning “justice on the grass” – that existed in Rwandan society since pre-colonial times. Reparation was not one of the stated goals of the modernized version of gacaca. Nevertheless, the modern gacaca system had – by design – a number of characteristics that aimed at facilitating the recognition of and reparation for victims: perpetrators needed to ask for pardon and most of the trials dealt with property looted and destroyed during the genocide. Based on long term fieldwork in Rwanda, including the observation of almost 2,000 trials, this article zooms in on these two characteristics of the court systems in practice. The analysis shows how the experience of recognition differs when pardon is expressed in or outside a legal arena and whether civil reparation happens through trial proceedings or mediation.

The masculine logic of DDR and SSR in the Rwanda Defence Force

Since the 1994 genocide and civil war, the Rwandan government has implemented an externally funded disarmament, demobilization and reintegration/security sector reform (DDR/SSR) programme culminating in the consolidation of armed groups into a new, professionalized Rwanda Defence Force. Feminists argue that DDR/SSR initiatives that exclude combatant women and girls or ignore gendered security needs fail to transform the political conditions that led to conflict. Less attention has been paid to how gendered relations of power play out through gender-sensitive DDR and SSR initiatives that seek to integrate women and transform hyper-masculine militarized masculinities. This article investigates how Rwanda’s DDR/SSR programme is governed by an oppressive masculine logic. Drawing on critical studies on men and masculinities and feminist work on peacebuilding, myths and the politics of belonging, it argues that Rwanda’s locally owned DDR/SSR programme places the military and militarization at the centre of the country’s nation-building programme. Through various ‘boundary-construction’ practices, the Rwandan government attempts to stabilize the post-1994 gender order and entrench the hegemony of a new militarized masculinity in Rwandan society. The case study draws on field research conducted in 2014 and 2015 and a discourse analysis of historical accounts, policy documents and training materials of the Rwanda Defence Force.

Noise and Silence in Rwanda’s Postgenocide Religious Soundscape

AbstractThis article explores conflicts around noise and silence in Rwanda’s postgenocide religious soundscape. After the genocide, new Pentecostal (or abarokore) churches grew rapidly in the country and offered up noise and a specific understanding of praise and worship music (guhimbaza Imana) as important ways to enact healing. However, Catholics emphasised silence and viewed the new Pentecostal churches as distracting interlopers. Far from being trivial differences, I argue that these conflicts around sound hint at wider divides in Rwandan society and a worrying new convergence between religious and ethnic identity. Focusing on aural conflicts between Christian denominations can therefore help us gain a better sense of the limits of Pentecostal conversion. Instead of assuming that Pentecostals are necessarily ‘noisy’, I suggest we pay closer attention to the ways in which they may also cultivate silence, and how this relates to wider power structures.

High Burden of GI Disease and Unmet Need in Rwanda: Findings From Rwanda Endoscopy Week

Introduction: Rwanda is an East African country of 12 million people that currently has 8 internists regularly performing diagnostic endoscopy. The country has four public referral hospitals with endoscopic capabilities. The Rwandan Society of Endoscopy (RSE) has a goal of expanding its coverage and increasing skills in therapeutic endoscopy. Prior case series of EGDs in Butare and Kigali have revealed major endoscopic diagnoses (i.e. ulceration, stricture and malignancy) in up to 40% of exams. Rwandan endoscopy week was a collaborative effort between a US gastroenterology team and members of the Rwandan Society of Endoscopy (RSE) who have a longstanding working relationship through a series of international physician exchanges. Methods: Six US GI physicians, two nurses, two technicians and a biomedical engineer worked in collaboration with members of the RSE (15 physicians and 18 nurses) for one week. Combined US/Rwandan teams were deployed to the four referral hospitals with endoscopic capabilities. GI consultation was done on the hundreds of patients referred for endoscopy to ensure appropriateness of the procedure. Patient demographic data, procedural indication and results were collected at the four sites with the Google Forms online tool. Results: Completed procedures included 200 EGDs, 39 colonoscopies and 5 ERCPs. 33% of EGDs revealed significant findings including peptic ulcer disease (16%), suspected gastric malignancy (4%), esophageal varices (4.5%), esophageal stenosis (2.5%) and benign-appearing gastric outlet obstruction (2.5%). Interventional procedures included esophageal variceal banding (7), placement of esophageal stents (2), balloon dilation of the esophagus (7), duodenum (1) and pylorus (1). Of those presenting for colonoscopy, the most common indications included hematochezia (41%), abdominal pain (31%) and constipation (28%). Significant findings on colonoscopy included hemorrhoid disease (23%) and suspected colorectal cancer (7.7%). Findings on ERCP included two patients with choledocholithiasis, one with a choledochoduodenal fistula and one with suspected cholangiocarcinoma. Conclusion: Our findings support the presence of a high burden of GI disease in Rwanda. Expanding Rwanda’s current capabilities to address this need is feasible, but will require many more physicians to be trained in diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopy. As the current Rwandan endoscopists are proficient in diagnostic endoscopy, advancement to therapeutic skills is a natural next step.

Introducing ERCP in a Low Income Country: A Case Series From Rwanda Endoscopy Week

Rwanda is an East African country of 12 million people with recent advances in access to diagnostic upper endoscopy. The burden of gastrointestinal disease in Rwanda is great and there is no availability of ERCP. Management of patients with biliary disease currently consists of either medical or surgical interventions. Rwandan endoscopy week was a collaborative effort between a US gastroenterology team and members of the Rwandan Society of Endoscopy (RSE) who have previously established a longstanding working relationship through a series of international physician exchanges. This series illustrates a proposed model for global health endeavors in advanced endoscopy. An advanced therapeutic team of two GI physicians, a nurse, two ERCP technicians and a biomedical engineer from the US worked in collaboration with members of the RSE. The visiting team donated side-viewing endoscopes and therapeutic supplies. The team consulted on patients with biliary pathology to determine which cases were appropriate for ERCP. Procedures were performed in the operating theater under general anesthesia. ERCP was facilitated by fluoroscopy using a C-arm typically used for surgical cases. A Rwandan biliary surgeon was available for surgical backup as needed. Five patients were selected for ERCP and consented to the procedure. Indication for ERCP in 4/5 patients was clinical suspicion for biliary obstruction from gallstone disease; one had suspected biliary obstruction from malignancy. Findings on ERCP included two patients with choledocholithiasis, one with a choledochoduodenal fistula and one with suspected cholangiocarcinoma. ERCP in the patient with biliary malignancy was complicated by perforation during palliative stent placement. Biliary perforation across the tumor was identified on fluoroscopy. The procedure was immediately converted to an open laparotomy and the defect was successfully repaired with a choledochojejunostomy. There were no other complications. The burden of GI disease in Rwanda is great and many patients may benefit from ERCP. This series of five cases were the first ERCPs ever performed in Rwanda. ERCP is possible in an under-resourced setting and would nicely complement the current capabilities in laparoscopic surgery. Challenges include obtaining and maintaining the advanced equipment and training physicians and advanced endoscopy staff. Support from a skilled surgical team is essential given the potential risk of complications.2158 Figure 1 No Caption available.