Russian Troops Research Articles

Substantiation of the necessity and method of upgrading the software of the measuring complex for assessing the load capacity of girder spans of road bridges

The article notes that the software of the complex used in the Russian troops to solve in a short time the actual problem of determining the possibility of safe passage of super heavy loads on girder road bridges has the following disadvantages: 1) it can only be used for split concrete bridges; 2) the decision to pass a large load through the bridge is made only by the value of the deflection in the center of the span, without taking into account the resulting stresses in the bridge span structure structures, and without taking into account the bearing capacity of the supports. In the article, in order to eliminate these shortcomings: 1) a strict formula is obtained for calculating the deflection in the middle of beam spans made of any structural materials from the angle of rotation of their support sections; 2) based on the use of the fundamental relationship between the relative heights of girder spans, the relative deformations of the edges of their cross sections and their relative deflections, it is proved that the maximum stresses in the edges of the cross sections of girder spans from any structural materials can be calculated by the maximum deflection value in the middle of their spans; 3) a method is established for determining the ability of beam bridge supports to ensure safe passage of a heavy vehicle by the nature of changing the rotation angles of the supporting cross sections of the span structures under the influence of the movement of the heavy vehicle layout. Taking these three results into account, when upgrading the software of the measurement system, ensures that the goal of the work is achieved.

Russian Bases Abroad: Security Policy or Power Projection?

After the collapse of the bipolar system, the Soviet Union, and then its heir, the Russian Federation, lost its position as a global player in favour of US hegemony. The arms race was abandoned, reduction of military spending began, and Russian troops were withdrawn from most bases outside the country. The changing conditions of Russia’s security, NATO enlargement, and loss of influence in many regions of the world have prompted the Russian authorities to change their security policy and restore the former balance. The security policy of the Russian Federation aimed at rebuilding its superpower position in the world is implemented, among others, through their military presence outside its borders. The use of this instrument in foreign policy serves both to regain a dominant role and to pursue particular interests – including internal ones. A critical analysis based on the literature on the subject, strategic documents of the Russian Federation, and reports and articles available on the Internet confirms the assumption that the Russian Federation successfully strengthens its position in the world, thus strengthening not only the security of the state, but also manifesting its power.

Місто Ізмаїл та його фортифікація (за джерелами XVI–XIX ст.)

With these words, Philip Stanislavov, bishop of Nikopol, described the Ottoman city of Izmail and its people after a pastoral visit to his diocese in 1659. A place for gathering and sorting slaves for the Constantinople market,2 Izmail had grown extensively in the seventy years since its foundation, which an official decree of Sultan Murad III dates to November 1589. The birth of this fortified city and its development from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries are exhaustively reconstructed in a book coauthored by Andrew Krasnozhon, historian, and Mehmet Tütüncü, specialist in medieval Ottoman epigraphy.Located in what is now Ukraine, along the northernmost branch of the Danube Delta, Izmail is relatively famous for having been stormed and taken by Russian troops led by General Alexander Suvorov in 1790, during the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1792.3 The rest of its history is practically unknown, however, even in Ukraine. Andrew Krasnozhon and Mehmet Tütüncü fill this gap based on documents mainly from Russian, Turkish, and Ukrainian archives. Cartographical and iconographical sources also play an important role and include about ten Ottoman maps and plans and a series of watercolors by the Russian painter Mikhail Matveevich Ivanov (1748–1823) dating to the late eighteenth century.The book is arranged in twelve parts: I, “The Beginning of the City’s History”; II, “The First Construction Works”; III, “The City in the Possession of Mehmed-aga’s Charitable Foundation”; IV, “The Development of Izmail in the 1590s”; V, “Christian Izmail in the 17th Century”; VI, “Social and Economic Life in the Izmail District (1689–1693)”; VII, “The Epigraphy and Cartography of Izmail (1702–1770)”; VIII, “The City and Defensive Works in the 1770s”; IX, “The First Bastion Fortress of the 1780s”; X, “The Assault on Izmail in December 1790”; XI, “Modernization of the Fortifications in the 1790s”; and XII, “Izmail in the 19th Century and the Dismantlement of the Fortress (1856)”.Parts I–IV concern the city’s history, from its foundation to the end of the sixteenth century. Particular attention is given to its founder—the wealthy Habeshi Mehmed-aga, an intellectual of Ethiopian origin and patron of artists and architects, in close contact with Sultan Murad III—and to the main buildings erected at his initiative: a shipyard, a castle, a mosque, and a caravanserai, as well as baths, an elementary school, and several shops.Parts V–VI describe Izmail’s population in the seventeenth century, when Bishop Philip Stanislavov visited it. At that time, the city was prevalently Orthodox. Almost 85 percent of its population was composed of Moldavians, Greeks, and Armenians, and only 15 percent were Tatars and Turks. Jewish and Catholic minorities completed the picture. Among Catholics, the presence of merchants from Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was noteworthy, as Monsignor Stanislavov observed. As in other settlements in the region, such as Kilia,4 the Turks lived in their own quarter, separate from the rest of the population.Part VII presents a remarkable set of Ottoman epigraphs and maps concerning Izmail and its district. Among them is a minutely detailed map showing cities and fortresses on the Lower Danube, with a representation of the Danube Delta as it was in the second half of the eighteenth century (p. 270, figure 159).The rest of the book (Parts VIII–XII) reconstructs the history of Izmail’s defensive works: from the first castle, destroyed during the seventeenth century, to the bastion fortress built by the Ottoman government in the 1780s; from a rearrangement of fortifications after Suvorov’s assault in 1790 to the dismantlement of the fortress in 1856, when Izmail was annexed to the principality of Moldavia as a result of the Crimean War.5With its precise historical reconstruction and the presentation of many previously unpublished sources, this book by Krasnozhon and Tütüncü is an indispensable tool for all scholars interested in the history, epigraphy, and cartography of the Lower Danube during the Ottoman period.

Don Cossacks and the Battle of Rassevat on September 4, 1809

Introduction. The Russian-Turkish war of 1806–1812 was the longest military conflict between Russia and Turkey. In the hope to force the Turks to peace, Russian troops crossed the Danube several times and fought for key fortresses on its banks. One of the battles on the right Bank of the Danube in 1809 was won practically by the Don Cossacks alone. In this battle Russian troops were led by such famous military leaders as Bagration, Miloradovich, Platov. After this battle Miloradovich and Platov were promoted to “full generals” (general in chief). Methods and materials. This battle is also interesting because the state archive of Rostov region has a very detailed collection of documents about it. Of all the documents relating to this war, the greatest number refers to the battle of September 4, 1809, because after it Don ataman Platov received his highest rank. The purpose of this study is to identify reasons for such an unusual victory. Analysis and results. The author investigates the course of the battle in detail using archival materials. The study shows that Russian forces were twice as superior to Turkish ones; during the battle, the command made a number of mistakes, which did not allow to completely surround the Turkish troops. High awards received by the command for this battle did not quite correspond to the level of success. The Russian commanders had friends at court and this partly affected the awards.

RUSSIAN SOLDIERS AND OFFICERS SEEN BY THE FRENCH WITNESSES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR (1853-1856) IN THE NOVEL BY L. BOUSSENARD "LE ZOUAVE DE MALAKOFF" (LINGUOIMAGOLOGICAL ASPECT)

The article deals with the means of linguoimagological verbalization. Linguoimagology is a new trend in philology. The term was introduced by L. Ivanova. The author of the article analyzed the features of the linguistic perception’s interpretation of the Russian officers and soldiers by the French witnesses during the Russo-Turkish War which started in 1853 and finished in 1856. We have selected for the analysis "Le Zouave de Malakoff" – the novel by L. Boussenard. The book describes the military activities on the peninsula. It should be underlined that this work has never been translated from French into the Ukrainian language and is a rare volume even in the motherland. The author pays great attention to the description of fighting of the Russian troops. L. Boussenard evaluates the war activities in the Crimean War and everyone has a good chance to see them with the eyes of a French person. It looks, as if he or she paricipates in the described campaign. This novel fully depicted the events of the mid-nineteenth century which happened on the Crimean peninsula where the British, French, Russian, Sardinian, and Turkish armies fought. In the article various discourses were considered. The volume of the work let us deal only with the military activities associated with the soldiers and officers of the Russian army from the point of view of the French participants. We came to such an assumption that besides the positive attitude to the enemies, L. Boussenard also had ironic assessment of them and of the activities conducted by the people. Thus, it should be concluded that, the view of the Russians by the French is presented ambivalently in the linguoimagological aspect. The writer gives characteristics which have positive connotations, together with those which contain negative ones in their semantics. The author used repetitions, alliteration, hyperbole, comparison, short sentences, and metaphor. Generally speaking, the descriptions of the attacks and retreats of the armies are rendered in the present tenses. With the help of this stylistic detail, the narrator reveals the features of the battles, the nature of the involved armies more colorfully.

Дореволюционные военно-исторические исследования об участии кубанского казачества в событиях Русско-турецкой войны (1877-1878)

The paper shows how the Kuban Cossacks’ participation in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 is represented in pre-revolutionary military-historical works written by immediate participants and eyewitnesses of the event. Scientific originality of the study lies in the fact that the researcher analyses publications on the role of the regular and irregular cavalry and special military units created to increase the Russian troops’ combat efficiency. The analysis of historical sources allows concluding that, in spite of the wide range of publications on this issue, the problem of the Kuban Cossacks’ participation in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 is insufficiently investigated.

1917 Ekim Devrimi Sonrası Güney Kafkasya’da Gelişmeler Işığında Ömer Faik Numanzade’nin Siyasi Faaliyetleri

After the outbreak of World War I, one of the most important goals of the Ottoman Empire was to dominate the areas where Muslim Turkish population was high in the Caucasus, thus gaining the support of indigenous Turks and opening up the way to Turkestan. However, the Ottoman Empire failed in this policy and the Russians advanced into the interior of Anatolia. The events that took place in the region after the Russian Revolution of 1917 re-directed the Ottoman Empire to the Caucasus. After the Bolsheviks came to power in 1917, Russian troops withdrew from the Caucasus and left their weapons and ammunition to the Georgian militia and Armenian gangs. Therefore, the South Caucasus Turks organized themselves against the occupation, and massacres occurred which accelerated political activities. One of the prominent figures in the Ottoman Caucasus Islamic Army in 1918 was Omer Faik Numanzade, who represented the Turks of Georgia. Numanzade undertook political activities in order to ensure that the Turks of the Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia did not disappear in the face of the Russians, Armenians and Georgians after the events that took place in the region during the First World War. For this purpose, he went to Istanbul and met with Enver and Talat Pasha and made some national demands. He invited the Ottomans to the region in order to protect the presence of the Caucasian Turks and to help the Caucasus Islamic Army to go to the Caucasus. On October 29, 1918, the Akhishka government was established, albeit short-lived, and Omer Faik was the president of this government. Considerable research has been carried out on this subject to this day. However, the studies conducted in the period in question mainly deal with Azerbaijan and Kars, while the Turks of the Ahıska Region or Georgia were not given much mention. Thus, Omer Faik Numanzade, who carried out important exploits in the history of the Caucasus Turks' national struggle, has largely been ignored. In this study, the picture that emerged as a result of the developments in the Caucasus after the October Revolution of 1917 and the political activities carried out by Omer Faik Numanzade representing the Georgian Turks (Ahıska) will be discussed. In this study, the description of the events that took place in Georgia will illuminate the darkness of that period and shed light on the relations within Turkey's Caucasus regions. 

Топографія фортеці та міста Кілії за описами і графічними джерелами 1650-х – 1790-х рр.

Стаття присвячена дослідженню топографії фортеці та міста Кілії протягом 1650-х – 1790-х рр. на підставі описів та цілої низки графічних документів. В ній узагальнені відомі описи мандрівників-сучасників, але особливу увагу було приділено аналізу та публікації графічних джерел, що репрезентовані художніми малюнками, картами та планами, виконаними переважно військовими топографами та інженерами. З перших найбільш відомий пейзаж Кілії німецького торгівця Н.Е. Клеємана 1768 р., аналіз якого показав, що він не є повністю автентичним зображенням. Картографічних документів по темі відомо понад 20, з них опубліковано не більше половини, а цінними й інформативними є лише 5-6. Вони складаються з трьох хронологічних груп, які відображають ситуацію у 1770 р., 1790 р. і у 1794 р. За планами, перспективами та видами (профілями) вдалося досить повно уявити та описати конструкцію Старої фортеці Кілії та планіграфію її околиць, а також уточнити локалізацію низки об’єктів: веж, брам, мечетей, церков, лазень, кладовищ, митниці, базару, бійні та ін.
 У статті вперше розглядається подальша історія низки об’єктів фортеці та міста Кілії, зокрема мечетей, які були переосвячені на православні храми, та численних пам’ятників кількох мусульманських цвинтарів. Автор наводить документальні факти стосовно спроб повного руйнування Старої фортеці Кілії російськими військами у лютому-березні 1791 р. та вивезення наступного року мармурових надгробків з кладовищ Кілії на територію Російської імперії з метою оздоблення церков. Крім того, у статті публікується, знайдена автором у 1995 р. на центральному кладовищі міста, мармурова стела з написом, яка датована квітнем 1770 року.

Islam and Mountain traditions in determining the character of the protagonist in Lev Tolstoy's novella "Hadji Murat"

The article deals with the last novella of Lev Tolstoy, called Hadji Murat, on the Caucasus. Here, for the first time in Russian classical literature, the main character of a great realist work is an Eastern Man, a Muslim, a Mountaineer and a Tatar. The main subject of Tolstoy's research on history and art is the fate of Hadji Murat, one of the leaders of the mountain peoples' liberation movement. Hadji Murat is more than a historical figure, he is a legend of his time. For 20 years, he fought relentlessly with Russian troops, who were much stronger, professional and equipped than himself. He surprised everyone with his daring raids, his bravery and legendary invincibility. It is very important how the author of "Hadji Murat" comprehends the world of people from a different culture. One of the most important indicators of this is the author's skilful use of folkloric and religious materials that constitute the basic dynamics of the people. The article tackles this issue fundamentally. Muslim and pagan values are strangely intertwined under the consciousness of the protagonist of the novella, and although they complement each other in some ways, they fundamentally contradict each other. In this novella written by Tolstoy, Hadji Murat is shown as a religious person. Various artistic and folkloric functions take place in the novella. Aphorisms, proverbs, concise expressions, idioms, tales and folk songs about mountains and mountain dwellers helped the author reproduce the national consistency and priorities of the national cultural paradigm.

Османське містечко Тульча та його фортеці у ХVІІ-ХІХ ст.

Стаття присвячена вивченню оборонних споруд м. Тульча (Румунія), що існували з першої половини ХVІІ до середини ХІХ ст. Велика їх частина виконувала роль передмостових укріплень у переправ через Георгіївський рукав р. Дунай на дорозі до Ізмаїлу. Протягом зазначеного періоду на вже відомих і наведених у роботі планах, картах та іконографічних джерелах зафіксовано низку різночасових об’єктів. Першим був османський замок 1630-х – 1810-х (?) рр., який вдалося точно локалізувати, відновивши його конструкцію та розміри. Другим була бастіонна фортеця, що мала дуже коротку історію (1825-1829 рр.). Частина земляних редутів або фортів (табій) існували як мінімум з 1771 року, а інші пізніше побудували турецькі чи російські війська. Крім того, на кількох планах відзначена мечеть, вперше згадана Евліею Челебі у 1657 р., що стояла на місці нинішньої джамії султана Абдулазіза (Moscheea Azizyie, побудови 1863 р.), а в інших джерелах – ще не менше трьох мечетей у західній і центральній частинах містечка.

Sabotage Acts of German Agents in the Rear of the Russian Troops (Warsaw Governor General. 1914-1915)

For the first time in Russian historiography, the history of some sabotage operations, which was carried out at the beginning of the First World War in one of the spy-dangerous sections of the western borderland of Russia - in the Warsaw Governor General - is revealed. The author concludes that German intelligence failed to paralyze the daily railway supplies of weapons, ammunition, uniforms, food, etc. to the Russian armies to the theater of operations. Unprofessional sabotage agents (Russian citizens living in the Privislinsky Territory) were unsuitable for solving complex, responsible and dangerous sabotage tasks.

Ukrainian-Russian Relationship in 1917-1918: History Lessons

The author has carried out a comparative analysis of Ukrainian-Russian relationship between the days of the Ukrainian Central Rada and the modern period. The character and ideological basis of stable tendencies in Russia’s policy towards Ukraine have been demonstrated. The similarity in the approaches of the Russian central government to the so-called “solution of the Ukrainian issue” has been determined; the essence of Russian chauvinism in understanding the right of nations to self-determination has been demonstrated. The causes and consequences of the war between Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian People’s Republic have been analyzed. The author has determined the main significant, fateful mistakes of the leaders of the Central Rada within relations with the People’s Commissar of Russia, which led to the loss of authority and support of the Ukrainian people for national power and, as a consequence, the collapse of the Ukrainian People’s Republic. The nature and essence of the ideology of the so-called “Russian world” have been revealed. It has been concluded that the history of Ukrainian statehood in 1917-1918 is instructive in many aspects, since it shows that one of the main reasons for the defeat of the Ukrainian Central Rada, which ultimately failed to defend the Ukrainian People’s Republic, was the lack of necessary consolidation of national political forces in solving urgent state affairs (creation and development of own army, timely solution of social, economic problems, efficiency of work of legislative and executive agencies, etc.). It has been noted that the challenges currently facing the Ukrainian state – Russia’s annexation of Crimea, the invasion of its troops in the East, the information war, the propaganda of the so-called “Russian world”, etc. – are not new. In many ways, they repeat what happened in 1917-1918. In particular, the proclamation of puppet pseudo-republics “DNR” and “LNR” in the East of Ukraine, through which Russian troops de facto launched the war against Ukraine. That is why modern Ukrainian politicians need to learn the lessons from the past. Nowadays, when Ukraine is defending its independence from Russia, Ukrainian statesmen and politicians must abandon their narrow party and self-interests and work together to protect national achievements from the encroachments of the “Russian world”, the most important of which is the state of Ukraine.

Османские планы по закрытию Черного моря в начале XVIII в.

The purpose of the study is to consider the importance of the East Azov Sea and the Strait of Kerch in the relations between the Russian state and the Ottoman Empire in the late XVII – early XVIII centuries as a special direction in the foreign policy. It gained relevance after the successful capture of Azov by Russian troops and Cossacks. The Russian state attempted not only to seize these lands, but also to open navigation in the Black Sea. This problem could be solved by the transfer of the Kerch fortress to Russia or the conclusion of a trade agreement with the Ottoman Empire, which gave the right to free navigation through the Kerch Strait. The unwillingness to allow foreign vessels into the Black Sea and serious concerns about the safety of the state’s capital led to the plans of Porta to close the Kerch Strait completely. The article chronologically traces the emergence of such ideas at the court of the Ottoman Sultan and attempts to implement them in the context of Russian-Ottoman relations and the real abilities of Porta. The scientific novelty of the article lies in determining the methods available to the Ottomans for the implementation of the plan to close the Kerch Strait from foreign powers, in chronological ordering of existing documents and materials, which reveal the essence of the research problem. The author concludes that the lack of financial resources and the timely actions of the Russian ambassadors at the court of the Ottoman sultan did not allow the implementation of a grand project to turn the Sea of Azov into a closed or half-closed reservoir. The normalization of Russian-Ottoman relations and attempts to penetrate the Black Sea peacefully solved the problem of unilateral closure of the strait.

Українсько-польська оборонна співпраця: визначення пріоритетних подальших напрямів

Since the beginning of Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, Poland has been Ukraine's closest and the most important strategic partner.In order to fill the content of the strategic partnership between Poland and Ukraine, the parties have created a certain institutional structure for the partnership. These are permanent mechanisms for implementing and coordinating strategic interests within the partnership (Advisory Committee of the Presidents of Ukraine and Poland, Ukrainian-Polish Joint Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation, Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian Parliamentary Groups, Permanent Ukrainian-Polish Conference on Issues European integration, Ukrainian-Polish, Polish-Ukrainian forums).But after 2015, there has been a certain crisis in Ukrainian-Polish relations, caused mainly by historical disputes after the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine recognized the UPA soldiers as participants in the struggle for independence in 2015, and the Polish Seimas in 2016 recognized the Volyn tragedy as a genocide of the Polish people. Some experts have called recent years the worst period in the history of Ukrainian-Polish relations since 1989.Despite these developments, Polish-Ukrainian cooperation has great importance for Ukraine, as the Republic of Poland is one of the first countries convicted the invasion of Russian troops into Ukrainian territory and annexation of Crimea. The leadership of Poland stands for providing Ukraine with international support, material, financial and military-technical assistance from the EU, NATO and the IMF.Therefore, the article identifies priority areas for further defense cooperation between Poland and Ukraine on the basis of the analysis, taking into account contradictions based on the interpretation of historical events. Which, in our opinion, is an urgent and very important issue both for resolving the Donbas conflict and for Ukraine's Euro-Atlantic integration.

The East Prussian operation (1914) coverage in Russian newspapers

The paper deals with the issues of the East Prussian operation (1914) coverage in Russian Newspapers. On the basis of various newspapers the author analyzes the coverage of the Russian and German troops actions in East Prussia in August-September 1914. The author also reveals fundamental themes of Russian newspapers when covering the East Prussian operation. The paper is based on various newspapers of the Russian Empire. The following Russian newspapers were analyzed: Vestnik voyny, Donetskaya zhizn, Mariupolskaya zhizn, Moskovskaya kopeyka, Novoye vremya, Permskaya zemskaya nedelya, Rech, Russkoe slovo, Utro v Kharkiv. The study was focused on Petrograd and Moscow newspapers, as well as regional newspapers that, among other things, reprinted material from other publications on their pages. The study showed that Russian newspapers, when covering the East Prussian operation, were characterized by creating a positive impression among readers, focusing on the successes of the tsarist army. Readers were introduced to victories, both at the level of large military formations and at the level of small military units. The defeats of the Russian troops were presented by the newspapers not as a tragedy, but as a short-term failure, followed by quick victories.

Lwowskie znaki pieniężne w okresie okupacji rosyjskiej w czasie I Wojny Światowej

Lviv banknotes during the Russian occupation in the First World War. The article sets out the peculiarities of monetary circulation in the territory of the city of Lviv during its occupation by Russian troops during the First World War. Attention is drawn to the problems of introducing Russian rubles into monetary circulation throughout the occupied territories of Galicia formerly belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is noted that the simultaneous existence of the currencies of the two empires in monetary circulation, and the absence of fractional money, complicated the settlement process, and contributed to the emergence of social and economic problems, which subsequently led to the necessity of issuing city bonds in Lviv. In response to the problems caused by the “fractional money crisis”, the Russian occupation authorities promoted, answering on the proposition of the Lvov government, the issuance of Lviv bonds with a face value of 1 crown (issued in September 1914). The difficult financial situation Lviv found itself in necessitated the further issue of city bonds with a face value of 100 crowns (issued in February 1915). The problems surrounding the issue of Lviv bonds by the Russian authorities during the occupation has been reconstructed on the basis of archival documents.

ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ РУССКОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ЖЕЛЕЗНЫХ ДОРОГ ГАЛИЦИИ (СЕНТЯБРЬ 1914 – ФЕВРАЛЬ 1915 г.)

The article explores the formation of the Russian Administration of Galician Railways in the autumn of 1914. The occupation of Eastern Galicia by Russian troops was followed by the organisation of the civil administration of Galicia. The Galician railways were initially managed by the Southwest Railways. However, it was decided to form a separate Galician network. On October 25, 1914, the Galician Railway Administration was organized, with K.S. Nemeshaev appointed its director. Retreating from Galicia, the Austro-Hungarian army caused significant damage to Galician railways. The military situation on the front demanded fast restoration of railway communication to transport military goods and supplies for the army and evacuate the wounded. Meanwhile, the population of Galicia desperately needed regular passenger communication and freight traffic, thus the task was important both in the military and political terms. There were many factors complicating the work: the difference between the local narrow and Russian wide gauges, difficult terrain, lack of qualified personnel and rolling stock, and remoteness of Galicia. However, in the first three months of operation, the Railway Administration carried out large-scale repair and restoration work on the railway track, which had been thoroughly destroyed by the enemy during its retreat. By February 1915, the Railway Administration had been able to double its operating network. It had also begun the expansion and development of existing lines and stations and construction of new ones. Two lines were changed to the Russian gauge.

IVAN KRYPIAKEVYCH AND THE POLITICAL EMIGRANTS OF NADDNIPRIANSHCHYNA: RELATIONS AND COOPERATION (1910 – 1930)

The study deals with Ivan Krypiakevych's relations with political emigrants of Naddniprianshchyna during the Ukrainian people's struggle for the state and national-cultural rights. Emphasis is placed on his first acquaintance with the people of Naddniprianshchyna at the scientific courses of 1904 in Lviv, participation in the work of the student "Academic Community" and the society "Prosvita", at M. Hrushevskyi's historical seminar, and most importantly, in the struggle for Ukrainian university. For the latter, he was arrested along with other Ukrainian students, including Naddniprianshchyna residents. In the pre-war years, the historian actively cooperated with political immigrants, especially in honoring Taras Shevchenko's memory as a manifestation of the national unity of Halychyna and Naddniprianshchyna, to which some of his publications are devoted. Emphasis is placed on the scientist's close cooperation during the war with the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (ULU), in particular on his activities in the Bureau of Cultural Aid for the people of the Ukrainian north-western regions occupied by the Central Powers. The scientist's schooling work is shown and activities in the national and cultural life of Volyn and Kholm. He published about 30 articles in periodicals, including the ULU's editions, on historical topics, which covered the political and cultural life of the occupied Ukrainian lands, their destruction, and evacuation of the locals during the retreat of Russian troops. I. Krypiakevych's reaction to the actions of the Ukrainian Central Rada, its successes and disadvantages, in particular to the agrarian reform, organization of the army and schooling, his participation in the preparation of materials for the Ukrainian delegation at the Treaty of Brest negotiations are analyzed. His attitude to the Ukrainian State of P. Skoropadskyi, its achievements are clarified: acquisition of borders, the formation of a new army, organization of the financial system, diplomatic service, high school; and mistakes: failure to solve the agrarian issue, organization of anti-peasant punitive expeditions, insufficient streamlining of school affairs, issuance of a federal declaration; to the Directory of the Ukrainian People's Republic. The author highlights I. Krypiakevych's connections with scholars-historians and politicians of Naddniprianshchyna in the interwar period, relating to the Hetman-monarchical organization in Halychyna and the establishment of a conservative-state direction in Ukrainian historiography. Keywords: Ivan Krypiakevych, political emigration of Naddniprianshchyna, Ukrainian statehood, Ukrainian historiography.

ПРЕДЫСТОРИЯ ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ИМАГОЛОГИИ: ТРАДИЦИЯ КАК ЦЕЛЕУКАЗАНИЕ

Focusing on the history of Russian imagology, the article aims at identifying the origins of the imagological interests in research and public thought in Russia in the first and second thirds of the 20th century as well as research approaches of that time that may be required by modern imagology. This analytical insight arises from the endeavor of contemporary scholars to update and develop the imagology paradigm. The Patriotic War of 1812 and the entry of Russian troops into Paris in 1814 gave a powerful impulse to the imagological interests in Russian society. These events highlighted the irrational nature of European stereotypes and provided an opportunity for the Russian intellectual elite to observe how the European image of Russia evolves depending on the historical situation, which, in its turn, induced the Russians to collect and conceptualise the information about the image of Russia in European texts of different epochs. The Rossica Department in the Imperial Public Library was opened for the scholars to do bibliographic research of foreign publications about Russia. Commenting foreign essays about Russia was an important part of Russian academic and journalistic activity. Such publications regularly appeared in Syn Otechestva, Otechestvennye zapiski, Severnyy Arkhiv, Sovremennik, Biblioteka dlya chteniya, Russkiy vestnik, and Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya. The first imagological research proper was V.A. Klyuchevsky’s Skazaniya inostrantsev o Moskovskom gosudarstve [Legends of Foreigners about the Moscow State, 1866]. Without a critical analysis of foreign sources, the historian uses excerpts from different foreign texts to reconstruct an integral image of the Moscow state in the European consciousness. Although the first Russian imagological researches appeared in history, they laid the basis for the development of literary criticism. The book collection “Rossica” allowed Russian and foreign scholars (M.P. Alekseev, B.L. Modzalevsky, E.V. Tarle, M. Kadot) to study the Western literary opinion about Russia. Yu.M. Lotman relied on the imagological observations made by V.A. Klyuchevsky and his followers. Methodology of Soviet imagological research in literary criticism (M.P. Alekseev, B.G. Reizov, A.K. Vinogradov) was guided by the principles of history. These facts give grounds to speak about the formation of the Russian tradition of imagological researches, which has two characteristics: 1) following the principle of historicity and 2) focus on the functioning of the image of Russia in European literature of different epochs. In this context, it seems relevant for the Russian imagological works to focus on the phenomenon of “reverse reception” in Russian literature of the 19th century, that is on the Russian writers’ endeavor to comprehend the European image of Russia (to create a “meta-image”) and to oppose this image with their own holistic idea of Russia and its national features.

Permanent Neutrality of the Republic of Moldova — Strategy for Survival Between Russia and NATO?

The aim of the article is to analyze the main challenges related to the unilaterally declared permanent neutrality of the Republic of Moldova. This decision was made in complicated historical and geopolitical circumstances after the war in Transnistria was “frozen”, and foreign forces were deployed on its territory. Permanent neutrality wasseen asthe best way for Moldova to maintain stability and territorial integrity. Moldova has not yet resolved the “frozen conflict” on its territory. Although the situation has largely stabilized in the meantime with the help of the international community, the division is leading to economic and political instability and carries the risk of new conflicts and tensions. Also, Moldova has not received international recognition of its permanent neutrality status, while the Russian troops continue to infringe its sovereignty and internal security. As a result, questions about the sustainability of that status are increasingly being asked. Despite all the dilemmas, Moldova remains determined to establish permanent neutrality as a basic principle of its foreign and security policy. Permanent neutrality isstill considered to be the best way to respond to external influences and internal divisions and thusto preserve the stability and territorial integrity of the country. At the same time, neutral status does not exclude a certain type of security cooperation with Western institutions in order to ensure or, at the very least, implicitly guarantee the security of the state.