Rural Areas Of South Korea Research Articles

Effects of the 2018 heat wave on health in the elderly: implications for adaptation strategies to climate change.

There has been growing concern over the effects of heat waves on health. However, the effects of heat waves on the health of individuals in vulnerable groups have rarely been examined. We aimed to investigate the acute health effects of heat waves in elderly individuals living in rural areas and to survey their adaptation capacity. Repeated measurements of body temperature (BT), blood pressure, sleep disturbance, and indoor temperature were conducted up to six times for each of 104 elderly individuals living in rural areas of South Korea during the 2018 heat wave. Changes in BT, systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) according to variations in indoor and outdoor temperature were analyzed using linear mixed effect models controlling for age, sex, smoking, and drug use. We also surveyed heat wave adaptation capacity, heat wave shelters, and self-reported health problems. The average indoor temperature measured during the study period was 30.5°C (range: 22.9–38.3°C) and that of ambient temperature was 30.6°C (range: 24.6–36.3°C). BT significantly increased with indoor and outdoor temperatures. The effect on BT was greater in elderly women and the elderly with hypertension. DBP generally decreased with increasing indoor temperature, though the correlation was only statistically significant among the elderly with hypertension. Only 22 (21.2%) individuals used air conditioners during the heat wave. Most did not use an air conditioner mainly to avoid high electricity costs. Of the participants, 58.7% reported experiencing sleep disturbance, which was the most frequent self-reported health problem. Elderly individuals living in rural areas are directly exposed to high temperatures during heat waves, and their vital signs are sensitive to increases in indoor temperature due to poor adaptation capacity. Well-designed strategies for alleviating health-related stress during heat waves are necessary.

Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus in Ticks and SFTS Incidence in Humans, South Korea.

During 2016–2018, we collected 3,193 ticks from rural areas in South Korea to investigate the prevalence of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV). We detected SFTSV in ticks at an infection rate (IR) of 11.1%. We noted increases in the human IR associated with the monthly SFTSV IR in ticks.

Starting Leaps of Change from the Village:

Village autonomy carries along a demand for villages to become self-reliant through optimization of village development that is based on local values and resources. This paper aims at exploring village development within the framework of the Saemaul Undong movement in South Korea. This paper conducts a qualitative approach, and data are collected through in-depth interviews with some key persons related to Saemaul Undong. By conducting Saemaul Undong, the village development movement in South Korea covered three important aspects: improving environmental quality, increasing income, and improving the villagers' mentality. Those three aspects became the main values in transforming rural areas of South Korea to have a better life by optimizing their resources. Freedom in deciding the village program even there was also a national development policy is one of the key success factors of the Saemaul Undong movement. The success of the implementation of the Movement spread to other countries in order to adopt the strategies and model from its country of origin.

Patient-centered counseling program using health coaching to promote self-care among elderly hypertension patients in the rural area of South Korea

Patient-centered counseling program using health coaching to promote self-care among elderly hypertension patients in the rural area of South Korea

Mineral Intake Status of Community-Dwelling Elderly from Urban and Rural Areas of South Korea: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013~2016

We aimed to evaluate the intake of minerals (calcium, phosphorous, sodium, and potassium) in the urban and rural elderly and explore the adequacy of intake and food sources for each mineral using nationwide big data. The study used data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) between 2013 and 2016. We analyzed 5292 elderly individuals that were aged 65 years and older (2271 men, 3021 women). Daily calcium, phosphorous, sodium, and potassium intake, and they were analyzed using the 24-h dietary recall method. Additionally, the adequacy of intake and food sources for each mineral was analyzed. Blood triglyceride level was significantly higher in rural elderly than in urban elderly. The intake of calcium and potassium per 1000 kcal of energy intake was significantly lower in the rural elderly, and the proportion of participants with calcium intake below the Estimated Average Requirement was significantly higher in the rural elderly than in the urban elderly. The intake of calcium, phosphorous, and potassium in the rural elderly was lower than that in the urban elderly. These results can be used as basic data when making social and environmental policies for the health of the elderly and when providing targeted dietary education for the management of chronic diseases for the elderly.

Metabolic and inflammatory links to rotator cuff tear in hand osteoarthritis: A cross sectional study.

ObjectivesTo estimate the prevalence and associated factors of rotator cuff tear (RCT) in patients with hand osteoarthritis (HOA).MethodsBetween June 2013 and December 2015, we recruited 1150 participants in rural area of South Korea. Of the 1150 participants, 307 participants with HOA were analyzed. Plain radiography of both hands, magnetic resonance imaging of both shoulders, and serum levels of high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were obtained for all patients. HOA and RCT were diagnosed by clinical and radiologic findings.ResultsThe prevalence of RCT in patients with HOA (192/307, 62.5%) was higher than that in those without HOA (410/827, 49.5%, p<0.001). Among the 307 patients with HOA, the patients with RCT were older, and had higher hsCRP and lower HDL levels than the patients without RCT. Multiple logistic regression analysis confirmed significant associations of age (odds ratio [OR], 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02–1.11), serum hsCRP levels ≥0.6mg/L (OR, 1.68; CI, 1.00–2.80), and low HDL levels (male, <50 mg/dL; female, <40 mg/dL) (OR, 1.93; CI, 1.05–3.56) with RCT in patients with HOA. For patients below 60 years old, the prevalence of RCT was 2.8-fold higher in the low HDL group than normal HDL group (p = 0.048). Finally, the prevalence of RCT was 2.6-fold higher in patients with HOA with both elevated hsCRP and low HDL levels compared with those with neither (p<0.05).ConclusionsOur findings suggest inflammation and metabolic factors were associated with the prevalence of RCT in HOA patients.

Regional disparities in healthy eating and nutritional status in South Korea: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2017.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESConcerns about regional disparities in heathy eating and nutritional status among South Korean adults are increasing. This study aims to identify the magnitude of regional disparities in diet and nutritional status among Korean adults who completed the 2017 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES).SUBJECTS/METHODSThe participants were a nationally representative sample of Korean adults aged 19 years and older from the 2017 KNHANES (n = 6,126). We employed the svy commands in STATA to accommodate the complex survey design. The relative concentration index (RCI), absolute concentration index (ACI) and index of disparity were used to measure regional nutritional inequalities.RESULTSOverweight and obese adults were more prevalent among the poor than among the rich in urban areas (RCI = −0.041; P < 0.05), while overweight and obese adults were more prevalent among the rich than among the poor in rural areas of South Korea (RCI = 0.084; P < 0.05). Economic inequality in fruit and vegetable intake ≥ 500 g per day was greater in rural areas than in urban areas in both relative size (RCI = 0.228 vs. 0.091, difference in equality = 0.137; P < 0.05) and absolute size (ACI = 0.055 vs. 0.023, difference in equality = 0.032; P < 0.05).CONCLUSIONSThis study provides useful information identifying opposite directions in the relative concentration curves between urban and rural areas. Adult overweight/obesity was more prevalent among the poor in urban areas, while adult overweight/obesity was more prevalent among the rich in rural areas. Public health nutrition systems should be implemented to identify nutritional inequalities that should be targeted across regions in South Korea.

The effects of heat wave on health indicators of the elderly during 2018 heat waves in Korea

PDS 66: Climate change, Exhibition Hall (PDS), Ground floor, August 28, 2019, 1:30 PM - 3:00 PM Background/Aim: There has been growing concern about the effects of heat wave on health. However, the effect on the health indicators for vulnerable group has rarely been examined. We aimed to investigate the acute effects of heat wave on body temperature and blood pressure of elderly individuals living in poor housing conditions in rural areas. Methods: Indoor temperature, body temperature (BT), blood pressure, and sleep disturbance were repeatedly measured up to six times for each 104 elderly individuals living in four southern rural areas in South Korea during heat waves in 2018. Changes in the BT, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) according to variations in the indoor and outdoor temperature were analyzed using linear mixed effect models controlling for age, sex, drug use, and smoking. We also analyzed the health effects of heat wave from socioeconomic status. Results: The average of indoor temperatures measured during the study period was 30.5°C (range, 22.9~38.3°C) and that of daily maximum outdoor temperature 34.5°C (range, 29.5~37.5°C). Indoor temperature was higher in low-income group than relatively high-income group. BT increased by 0.05°C [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.03 to 0.06°C] with an increase in the indoor temperature of 1°C. The effect of increased indoor temperature on BT was greater in the elderly with hypertension and sleep disturbance. DBP generally decreased with increase in indoor temperature, while the DBP decrease in the elderly with hypertension showed a statistical significance [-0.41 mmHg (95% CI, -0.02 to 0.80 mmHg) per 1°C]. SBP increased as the indoor temperature increased, particularly for the elderly without air conditioner. Conclusions: The elderly with poor house condition are directly exposed to heat waves, while their vital signs respond sensitively to temperature increase indoors. More active strategies to cope with increasing heat wave are required, particularly for vulnerable group.

Factors Influencing Death Anxiety among Rural Elderly

Objectives The health of the aged in rural areas is significantly poorer than that of the urban elderly, and the social function of the elderly is lower than that of the urban elderly. The purposes of this study were to identify death anxiety, death attitude, and spiritual well-being and to identify the factors that affect death anxiety of the elderly living in rural areas of South Korea. Methods Total 101 elders aged 65 or older were recruited for this descriptive study and answered questionnaires. The questionnaire included death anxiety, attitudes toward death, and spiritual well-being. Results The level of death anxiety, attitudes toward death, and spiritual well-being in rural areas were more than moderate. Attitudes to death (β=-0.39) and living arrangements (β=0.27) were found as the influencing factors on the death anxiety among rural elderly. The more positive the attitudes toward death, the lower the death anxiety for the rural elderly, and the lower the death anxiety for the elderly living with their families than those who living alone. Conclusions To ease death anxiety, it is necessary to develop programs to affirm their attitudes to death and to mediate support resources to replace families for the elderly who live alone. It is very important to reduce death anxiety to ensure successful aging, one of the biggest challenges for the elderly at the last stage of their lives. Key words: Aged, Anxiety, Attitude, Death, Rural population

Radon concentrations in the community groundwater system of South Korea.

Groundwater samples were collected from 3818 wells used for the community groundwater system (CGS) in the remote rural areas of South Korea and analyzed to determine radon concentrations. Radon concentrations varied with rock type, ranging from 0.1 to 2393.5Bq/L with an average of 86.6Bq/L and a median of 46.4Bq/L. Among 10 geological units, the median CGS radon concentration was highest (59.6-103.0Bq/L) in granite, and lower in sedimentary rocks (16.9-21.1Bq/L) and porous volcanic rocks (17.6Bq/L), respectively. Of the 3818 samples, 26.1% exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) radon level limit of 100Bq/L. The application of the natural radon reduction rate (26.5%) recently suggested by Yun et al. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 126(1), 23-25 (2017) to the CGS water tank appeared to decrease exceedance of the WHO radon level limit to 20.2%. Because of the high radon concentrations in CGS groundwater in South Korea, the establishment of a radon level limit for drinking water is strongly recommended to ensure the health and safety of the people using CGS water.

Single or Dual Infection with Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Human Rhinovirus: Epidemiology and Clinical Characteristics in Hospitalized Children in a Rural Area of South Korea

목적: 호흡기세포융합바이러스(RSV)와 라이노바이러스(hRV)는 소아의 호흡기 바이러스감염의 가장 흔한 원인이다. 본 연구는 RSV 혹은 hRV 감염으로 입원하는 소아의 역학, 임상적 특성, 혈액 검사 결과를 분석하고, 각 바이러스 단독 감염과 동시 감염 간의 임상적 특성 및 혈액 검사 결과를 비교하고자 하였다. 방법: 2014년 10월부터 2017년 4월까지 매년 10월부터 4월 사이에 원주세브란스기독병원 소아청소년과에 호흡기 증상으로 입원한 만 5세 미만의 환아 중, 비강인두도말 검체로 다중 역전사 실시간 중합효소연쇄반응 검사를 시행하여 RSV 혹은 hRV가 검출된 사례를 대상으로 의무기록을 후향적으로 분석하였다. 결과: 강원 지역 소아 호흡기 환자의 multiplex RT-PCR 바이러스 검출 패턴 상, RSV는 늦가을부터 초봄 사이, hRV는 연중 고르게 분포하였다. RSV 혹은 hRV가 검출된 총 384례 중 RSV는 258례(R group), hRV는 99례(H group)에서 단독으로 검출되었고, RSV와 hRV의 동시 검출은 27례에서 있었다(RH group). R군의 연령 중앙값은 6개월이었으며, 248례(96.1%)가 하기도 감염이었다. 산소치료는 14례(5.4%)에서 있었다. 12개월 미만의 영아가 반수 이상을 차지하였고(63.2%) 호흡곤란, 산소치료가 많았다. H군의 연령 중앙값은 16개월이었으며, 56례(56.6%)가 하기도 감염이었다. 산소치료는 4례(4.0%), 기계 호흡은 1례(1.0%)에서 시행하였다. 영아(40.4%)는 12개월 이상 환자보다 재원기간이 길었다(5 vs. 4 days, P<0.05). RH군의 경우 24례(88.9%)가 하기도 감염이었고, 산소치료는 2례(7.4%)에서 있었다. RH군은 R군 및 H군과 비교하여 재원기간, 산소치료 및 기계 호흡의 비율에 차이가 없어, 동시 감염과 단독 감염의 유의한 중증도 차이는 없는 것으로 나타났다. 결론: RSV는 hRV보다 더 어린 연령에서 잘 이환되고 하기도 감염의 비율이 높았다. 동시 감염된 환자의 임상증상은 RSV 감염의 특성이 보다 반영되었고, 단독 감염에 비해 중증도에 차이는 없었다.

Association of head circumference with cognitive decline and symptoms of depression in elderly: a 3-year prospective study.

BackgroundBrain volume is associated with dementia and depression in the elderly. An easy way to predict relative brain volume is to measure head circumference. In this study, we investigated the relationship between head circumference and cognition as well as depression in a non-demented elderly community.MethodsBaseline and follow-up surveys were conducted in 2007 and 2010. At baseline, community residents aged 65 years or over (n=382) within a rural area of South Korea were screened for dementia and symptoms of depression and were followed using the same screening battery after 3 years (n=279). Data from anthropometric measurements (head circumference, height, and body weight), demographics, and blood tests were gathered. Neuropsychological tests, including the Korean version of mini-mental state examination (K-MMSE), clinical dementia rating (CDR) including the CDR-sum of boxes, the Korean version of instrumental activities of daily living, and geriatric depression scale (GDS), were performed. None of the 279 subjects followed were demented.ResultsBaseline performance on the K-MMSE and GDS was poorer for participants with smaller head circumferences. Follow-up performance on the MMSE was also poorer for participants with smaller head circumferences. Interestingly, participants with smaller head circumference showed worse GDS scores at baseline but on follow-up examination, participants with larger head circumference showed rapid worsening than those with smaller head circumference with marginal significance by ANOVA test. In regression coefficient analysis, GDS decline showed significant difference.ConclusionHead circumference was not associated with cognitive change but was associated with symptoms of depression in non-demented community residents.

The impact of national health insurance coverage on pit and fissure sealing experience.

The purpose of this study was to review the change of supplied amount of oral pit and fissure sealing (PFS) in urban and rural areas of South Korea after including PFS into the list of treatments covered by the National Health Insurance (NHI), and to check whether there is a difference in supplied amount in areas where the dental treatment accessibility is different based on the data of the Korean National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (KNHANES). The KNHANES data year used for 'before coverage' was 2007, and that of 'after coverage' was 2012. Data analysis was done using STATA software. Areas were classified as urban or rural. Reduction of out-of-pocket expenses, according to the NHI coverage PFS experience of children aged 6-14 years, increased from 28.7% before coverage to 34.9% after coverage. PFS experience of children aged 6-14 years in the urban area was increased from 29.2% before coverage to 35.6% after coverage. The increase in rural areas was from 27.2% before coverage to 31.5% after coverage. Although PFS supplying was increased after inclusion in NHI coverage, it is still insufficient to reduce the decayed, missing, filled teeth index effectively. To reduce inequality, supply of PFS in rural area by community oral health program should be strengthened. And also, waiving out-of-pocket money for PFS in NHI should be considered.

A Study on the Current State of the Integrated Human Rights of the Elderly in Rural Areas of South Korea

A Study on the Current State of the Integrated Human Rights of the Elderly in Rural Areas of South Korea

Seroprevalence of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus Antibodies in Rural Areas, South Korea.

We investigated 1,228 residents of 3 rural areas in South Korea and determined that 50 (4.1%) were positive for severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus antibodies. Fever and gastrointestinal symptoms in the previous 3 years and career duration were associated with virus seropositivity.

“Village Lunch Table” for the Korean Elderly in Rural Areas - A Pilot Program

To develop and deliver a comprehensive nutrition program to improve the dietary quality and health of the elderly living in rural areas in South Korea. Compared to the elderly in urban areas, the elderly in rural areas are more vulnerable to inferior diets and loneliness, affected by the lack of public infrastructure, budget constraints, tendency to live alone, lack of health literacy, and geographical distances, etc. Forty different menus and nutrition education materials were developed and implemented, providing two free meals weekly for 10 weeks at 50 villages (delivered to about 1650 elderly). The cooking facilities of the community centers of each village were used. Helpers preparing meals and the elderly people were pre-educated with nutrition materials on the five basic food groups, food hygiene, and dietary treatment for diabetes and hypertension. The evaluation tools were surveys on recipient satisfaction, and diet quality comparison of meals provided versus the previous day's meals measured by the number of food (DVS) and food groups (GMVFD) consumed. The satisfaction score was very high and the diet proved to be enhanced. This program of integrated meal service and nutrition education should be expanded to prevent the rural elderly from under nutrition and loneliness and to improve their health and quality of life.

The long-term relationship between dietary pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) intake and C-reactive protein concentration in adults aged 40 years and older

Background and aimsLow-grade inflammation, represented by minor C-reactive protein (CRP) elevation, has a critical role in the early stages of atherosclerosis, and pantothenic acid (PA) may have an antioxidant effect in inflammatory process. However, the long-term relationship between PA intake and CRP has not yet been studied. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the long-term relationship of PA intake to CRP concentration in healthy adults aged 40 years or older living in a rural area of South Korea. Methods and ResultsA total of 908 subjects (349 men, 559 women) with repeated data on dietary PA intake and CRP concentration were included in the final analysis. To represent the long-term effect of PA intake, both PA intake at the baseline and average PA intake were used as the exposure, and CRP concentration at the third visit and its change from the baseline to the third visit were used as the outcome. After adjustment for potential confounders, a significant inverse relationship between PA intake and CRP concentration at the third visit was observed (P for trend = 0.001, β = −0.07 (P-value = 0.001) for PA baseline; P for trend = <0.0001, β = −0.11 (P-value = 0.0004) for PA average (baseline, 2nd, 3rd)). Higher PA intake was significantly related to lower or attenuated increase in CRP concentration (P for trend = 0.002, β = −0.24 (P-value = 0.002) for PA baseline; P for trend = 0.001, β = −0.35 (P-value = 0.001) for PA average (baseline, 2nd, 3rd)). ConclusionsIn conclusion, dietary PA intake was inversely related to subsequent CRP concentration in both men and women aged 40 years or older in South Korea.

농촌지역 여성의 대사증후군 발생 위험요인 구조모형

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to construct and test a structural equation model to investigate the risk factors of metabolic syndrome in rural women. Methods: The raw data in this study was collected from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study supervised by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from 2005 to 2010. The data included physical examinations and surveys of 1,125 women, who resided in three rural areas of South Korea. The structural model in this study was composed of five latent variables: depression, stress, social support, health behavior, and metabolic syndrome. The structural equation model was used to assess the relationships among the variables. Results: The results of the study showed that depression and stress had direct effects on metabolic syndrome. Social support had a direct effect on health behavior and metabolic syndrome. Also, health behavior had a direct effect on metabolic syndrome. Conclusion: This study may serve as a guideline for interventions and strategies used to reduce metabolic syndrome in rural women. Key Words: Depression; Stress; Social support; Health behavior; Metabolic syndrome Key Words: 우울; ìŠ¤íŠ¸ë ˆìŠ¤; ì‚¬íšŒì ì§€ì§€; 건강행태; 대사증후군

PS 06-20 THE INTERACTION BETWEEN GENDER AND HEIGHT IN THE RELATIONSHIP WITH CENTRAL BLOOD PRESSURE AND BRACHIAL ANKLE PULSE WAVE VELOCITY

Objective: It has been reported that pulse pressure amplification (PPa) in elderly hypertensive subjects is larger in females than in males. Because the gender difference in heights remains, while other biological differences between genders decrease in the elderly, the gender difference in PPa may be confounded by heights. Therefore, we investigated the influence of heights on the PPa and brachial ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV). Design and Method: A cross-sectional study was performed with a general population in two rural areas of South Korea. PPa was defined as the difference between brachial systolic blood pressure (BSBP) and central systolic blood pressure (CSBP). Results: A total of 473 (292 females; the mean age, 58.1 ± 11.8 years) subjects were analyzed. Male subjects were taller than female subjects (166.8 ± 6.1 cm vs. 154.1 ± 5.7 cm, p < 0.001). BSBPs were higher in male subjects, whereas there were no differences in CSBPs between genders. PPa was larger in male subjects than in female subjects (−3.8 ± 7.9 mmHg vs. −8.2 ± 4.6 mmHg, p < 0.0001). baPWVs were marginally higher in male subjects than in female subjects (1525.8 ± 315.8 cm/s vs. 1468.9 ± 319.9 cm/s, p = 0.0597). Stepwise general linear modeling showed that height (adjusted R2 [adjR2] = 0.1738), age (adjR2 = 0.1984), the product of gender and height (adjR2 = 0.2090), gender (adjR2 = 0.2242) and drinking (adjR2 = 0.2329) were included in the model for PPa, and that age (adjR2 = 0.3455), metabolic syndrome (adjR2 = 0.3539), the product of gender and height (adjR2 = 0.3615) and gender (adjR2 = 0.3679) were included in the model for baPWV, in the orders appeared. Conclusions: The association of heights with PPa and arterial stiffness was stronger than that of gender, and the interaction between height and gender should be considered in studies for gender differences in vascular aging.

The cross-sectional relationships of dietary and serum vitamin D with cardiometabolic risk factors: Metabolic components, subclinical atherosclerosis, and arterial stiffness

ObjectiveThere has been increasing interest in non-skeletal interactions between vitamin D insufficiency, which is common, and cardiovascular event and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. MethodsTo evaluate cross-sectional associations between dietary and serum vitamin D status and metabolic abnormalities and arterial changes among 1054 adults aged ≥40 y (404 men and 650 women) in a rural area of South Korea. Study subjects were divided into three groups according to dietary vitamin D intake (tertiles) measured by food frequency questionnaire and serum 25(OH)D levels (≤20, 21–29, and ≥30 ng/mL). Metabolic components (blood pressure, lipid profiles, and glycemic index) and arterial changes (brachial ankle pulse wave velocity [baPWV] and carotid artery intima-media wall thickness [cIMT]) were measured. ResultsDietary vitamin D was inversely associated with diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and baPWV among men, but the association disappeared after multinutrient supplement users were excluded. Among women, there was an inverse association between dietary vitamin D and triacylglycerol (TG) levels. However, serum 25(OH)D showed a significant positive relationship with HDL cholesterol in both men and women, while a positive linear trend or nonlinear trend with serum 25(OH)D levels was shown in TG levels among men and in systolic blood pressure (SBP), DBP, total cholesterol, and baPWV among women. The positive relationship between serum 25(OH)D with baPWV disappeared after adjustment for blood pressure. ConclusionsSerum 25(OH)D may be favorably related to HDL cholesterol. However, serum 25(OH)D may not favorably related to subclinical atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness measured by cIMT and baPWV. The positive relationship between 25(OH)D and baPWV is likely to be mediated by blood pressure.