Farmers In Rural Areas Research Articles

The short Informative Communication about JE Virus: Flavivirus

JE (Japanese encephalitis) virus is a ‘Flavivirus’ associated with West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. This virus is transmitted by bites of infected or grimy culex type of mosquitos. Mostly in rural agricultural areas this virus is occurring. Their incubation period on an average 5–15 days in that period symptoms get occurs such as psychological status changes, neurological symptoms, weakness, headache, vomiting. Preventing for this virus, avoid mosquito bites by using insect repellant which is EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) registered, for babies and children wear full sleeves clothing, indoors and outdoors are covered by net for care yourself and your family from mosquito bite and also by spraying insect repellant .Follow the instructions which are labelled on product. There is no exact treatment only supportive care. It can be prevented by JE vaccine which is available in United States manufactured as IXIARO

Multi-mycotoxin exposure of children (0-24 months) in rural maize-subsistence farming areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

In South Africa, child malnutrition is highly prevalent among children from in rural areas mostly at risk. In the Eastern Cape (EC) Province, maize is commonly used as complementary and weaning food. Previous studies conducted in parts of EC have indicated high levels of fumonisin B (FB) mycotoxins in home-grown maize, as well as the co-occurrence of otherFusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN). A cross-sectional study of children below 24 months was conducted in rural maize-subsistence farming areas in Centane, EC to determine mycotoxin exposure. Home-grown maize samples (n=171) were collected from households in the study area and analysed by LC-MS/MS for FB, DON and ZEN. Food intakes of 129 children were quantified using a validated quantitative food frequency questionnaire (QFFQ). Individual raw maize consumption was calculated using recipes from the QFFQ. Probable daily intakes (PDIs) for each mycotoxin were determined using a deterministic approach and were compared to the respective mycotoxins’ provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). The numerical means for total FB (sum of fumonisin B1, B2 and B3), DON and ZEN levels in home-grown maize were 1,035, 24.5 and 31.0 μg/kg, respectively. Mean daily maize intakes of children ranged from 2-321 g/day and increased with age. The mean PDIs for total FB, DON and ZEN were 8.4, 0.2 and 0.3 μg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively. Exposures stratified by age indicated persistent high mean PDIs for total FB, above the PMTDI of 2 μg/kg bw/day, ranging between 5.0-11.6 μg/kg bw/day. Mean exposure to DON and ZEN were below their relevant PMTDIs (1 and 0.5 μg/kg bw/day, respectively). Individually, 81 and 13% of children had exposures above the PMTDI for total FB and for ZEN, respectively. Results confirm the magnitude of FB exposure among vulnerable groups from rural maize subsistence farming areas in EC.

Impact of socio-economic and water access conditions on life satisfaction of rural farmers in Faisalabad district of Pakistan

Abstract The current study is designed to see the effects of water access on the well-being of the farming community in rural areas of Pakistan. The data were collected from 300 households of ten villages in rural Faisalabad, Pakistan where the population is facing serious water quality and access issues due to industrial pollution, lack of clean water supply system and limited access to fresh water for agricultural use. We employed ordinary least square and ordered probit methods to measure the association between water access variables and households’ well-being. We found that source and quality of drinking water, access to irrigation water, and percentage of crop water requirement fulfilled, and water expenses were statistically significant influencing the households’ well-being. The study concluded that water access conditions strongly influence the life satisfaction and water access conditions must be considered in future research. Acknowledging the contribution of village-level economic activities to economic growth, a strong policy is proposed to re-evaluate the existing rural water supply strategy to enhance the households’ well-being and enhance livelihood generation among neglected pro-poor farmers in rural areas of Pakistan.

Cash Crops and Food Security: A Case of Tea Farmers in Burundi

Food security is a genuine challenge in developing countries. To combat food insecurity, various means and strategies are being mobilized. The promotion of cash crops in rural areas is one of the main strategies for improving food security. Accessibility to subsistence staples and stable living conditions for rural farmers are made possible by the relatively high and permanent income from cash crops. This paper addresses the issue of food security by discussing the power of tea crop incomes in a rural tea farming area in Burundi. A survey was conducted in 2019 among 120 smallholder tea farmers in two communes located in the Mugamba natural region of Burundi. The results show that the tea plant contributes significantly to food security for both tea farmers and non-tea farmers. By complementing other livelihood resources, tea incomes improve the food security of smallholder tea farmers. In addition, tea incomes ensure the resilience of smallholder tea farmers during lean seasons and against various shocks. Besides, the perennial nature of the tea plant provides a pension for smallholder tea farmers in their old age.

Економічні оцінки впливу Covid-19 на розвиток фермерських господарств

The purpose of the article is to evaluate measures to support the activities of farms and family farms in the conditions of David-19 and make a forecast assessment of their development and formation. Research methods. It is based on the active policy concept of entrepreneurial potential realization in the countryside, which includes measures for the farms and family farms development, in particular through the transformational mechanism of household formalization into a market environment. The following scientific methods were used in the research process: dialectical scientific knowledge of processes and phenomena; monographic (analysis of scientific achievements of Ukrainian and foreign scientists, as well as stages of business development); graphic (to obtain a synthesized idea of the object of study, to identify its components, to establish causal relationships); empirical (regarding a comprehensive assessment of the current state of the object of study); comparative analysis (identification of problems and directions of formation and development of farming); comparative analysis (taking into account the specific conditions of agricultural activity and comparing the processes of farming development at the national level); prognostic (formation of conceptual bases of regulation and improvement of the strategy of development of business); abstract-logical (theoretical generalizations and formulation of conclusions). Research results. The situation on minimizing the impact of quarantine measures under the conditions of Covid-19 and their consequences and interaction in the development of farms and family farms in rural areas is analyzed. On the basis of generalization in the development of mechanisms to ensure the efficiency of the agricultural sector of the economy, it is necessary to take into account the features and vulnerabilities of the organizational and legal management form. It was found that the most vulnerable to the introduction of quarantine restrictions are small and medium-sized farms, mostly those engaged in vegetable production, in particular the production of early vegetables and berries. This can directly lead to a reduction in their number. Thus, by 2025, the number of farms may be reduced by 450 units - up to 32639 against 33089 in 2019. However, the introduced measures, including compensation the part of SST for family farms, are able to provide in the near future approximately 200 thousand such farms both through a change in the organizational and legal form of existing small farms and through household formalization into the market environment with the acquisition of the official status of business entities. Scientific novelty. The methodological representation and identification of the category of self-employment as structured and defined by law, institutional and economic criteria, forms of organization of rural management with the appropriate definition of priority contours of possible organizational and economic effectiveness of functioning through employment in non-agricultural enterprises. Practical significance. The basic principles for counteracting the impact of restrictive measures in the context of Covid-19 were revealed, which allowed to assess the prospects for the development of farms, including family farms, as well as to make predictive calculations of the impact of proposed measures on their formation and development. Tabl.: 3. Figs.: 1. Refs.: 24.

IoT Sensing Platform as a Driver for Digital Farming in Rural Africa.

Small-scale farming can benefit from the usage of information and communication technology (ICT) to improve crop and soil management and increase yield. However, in order to introduce digital farming in rural areas, related ICT solutions must be viable, seamless and easy to use, since most farmers are not acquainted with technology. With that in mind, this paper proposes an Internet of Things (IoT) sensing platform that provides information on the state of the soil and surrounding environment in terms of pH, moisture, texture, colour, air temperature, and light. This platform is coupled with computer vision to further analyze and understand soil characteristics. Moreover, the platform hardware is housed in a specifically designed robust casing to allow easy assembly, transport, and protection from the deployment environment. To achieve requirements of usability and reproducibility, the architecture of the IoT sensing platform is based on low-cost, off-the-shelf hardware and software modularity, following a do-it-yourself approach and supporting further extension. In-lab validations of the platform were carried out to finetune its components, showing the platform’s potential for application in rural areas by introducing digital farming to small-scale farmers, and help them delivering better produce and increasing income.

Credit Impact on Agriculture Production in Pakistan

Credit Impact on Agriculture Production in Pakistan

PERANAN PENYULUH PERTANIAN DALAM MENDUKUNG KEBERLANJUTAN AGRIBISNIS PETANI MUDA DI KABUPATEN MAJALENGKA

Those who have the opportunity to foster young farmers in rural areas are agricultural extension workers. Therefore, agricultural extension workers are required to play a role in maintaining the sustainability of young farmers' agribusiness. The research aims to analyze descriptively the role of agricultural extension workers and the sustainability of young farmers 'agribusiness, and analyze the influence of the role of agricultural extension workers, characteristics, entrepreneurial capacity and external factors on the sustainability of young farmers' agribusiness. The study was conducted in Majalengka, West Java. The population is young farmers. The sample was selected as many as 137 people using cluster random sampling techniques. The research variables consisted of the characteristics of young farmers, external support, the role of agricultural extension workers, entrepreneurial capacity and agribusiness sustainability. Data analysis techniques using descriptive statistical analysis and multiple regression. The results of the study concluded that the level of the role of agricultural extension workers, external factors, entrepreneurial capacity and the potential for agribusiness sustainability of young farmers remained in the low category. The sustainability of young farmers' agribusiness is affected by access to information and communication technology (ICT), external factors, the role of agricultural extension workers and entrepreneurial capacity. Thus to maintain the sustainability of agribusiness young farmers can be done through increasing access to ICT, strengthening the role of agricultural extension workers, external factors and the entrepreneurial capacity of young farmers.

THE ROLE OF YOUNG FARMERS GROUP IN NEW MEDIA UTILIZATION FOR YOUNG HORTICULTURAL AGRIPRENEURS IN YOGYAKARTA SPECIAL REGION, INDONESIA

Purpose of the study: This study is to analyze the characteristics of young farmers in horticultural agripreneurs, the role of young farmers group, the utilization of new media in horticultural agripreneurs, and the influence of the characteristics of young farmers and the role of groups on the utilization of new media in horticultural entrepreneurs Methodology: This research used the survey method. A simple random sampling method was used in selecting 300 of 604 young farmers, consisting of 250 men and 50 women. The role of young farmers group and the utilization of new media variables are measured using a 5-score rating scale, which includes; (1) never, (2) rarely, (3) sometimes, (4) often, (5) always. Data were analyzed using percentages, mean scores, and multiple regression tests at p ≤ 0.05. Main Findings: The results showed that young farmers most often use smartphones to access social media. The majority of farmers use WhatsApp for their daily communication. Factors influencing the utilization of new media (Y) included gender (X1), an education level (X2), length of business (X3), and the role of farmer group (X4) together (R-square) of 34.7%. The role of young farmer groups and sex had a positive effect on the utilization of new media; length of business had a negative effect, while education level did not affect the use of new media (p≤0.05). Applications of this study: The government is expected to encourage young agripreneurs in Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia, who are just starting a business to utilize new media by empowering groups to conduct training and learning to become successful young agripreneur. Novelty/Originality of this study: This study found that the role of young farmers group as a means of social learning is very important in horticultural agripreneurs, especially for young farmers in rural areas who are just starting a business with the use of new media to develop their businesses.

Marketing efficiency and determinants of marketing channel choice by rice farmers in rural Tanzania: Evidence from Mbeya region, Tanzania

Rice production is an increasing source of income and food security for smallholder farmers in many parts of Tanzania. Improving market access for rice farmers is essential to raise rural incomes and reduce poverty. This paper aims to determine the most efficient rice marketing channel and analyse the factors affecting marketing channel choices by smallholder rice farmers. Marketing efficiency was tested using Acharya and Aggarwal's composite index method. A multinomial logit model was used to analyse the marketing channel choices. The results showed that the miller–wholesaler marketing channel is the most efficient. The results show that most farmers in rural areas still sell their rice to local collectors because of failure, fear or inability by farmers to venture out of the farm gate into the markets. The findings suggest that there is a need to improve rural infrastructure, market information systems, smallholder access to productive assets, prudent use of credit and strengthening collective action through well‐organised farmer groups in the country.

Effect of conventional degumming methods on Eri silk fibers produced in Kenya

PurposeThis paper aims to determine the best conventional degumming technique for use by rural farmers practicing Eri silk fiber production in Kenya.Design/methodology/approachThree conventional silk degumming methods (water, soap and alkali) were analyzed under the factors, namely, time, pressure and degumming media, following the multilevel factorial design of experiments. The effect of variables on degumming weight loss was determined. The effects of the conventional degumming methods that produced complete sericin removal on chemical structure, surface morphology, thermal properties, crystallinity and fiber strength on Eri silk fibers produced in Kenya were then determined. The optimal degumming condition was then evaluated.FindingsSoap and water degumming led to incomplete sericin removal. Alkali degumming media had the most effect, especially when pressure cooked at 103 kPa. Increasing time during alkali degumming beyond 30 min did not to have any major difference on degumming loss (at p 0.05). There were no major changes in chemical and thermal properties after degumming. However, the tensile strength and elongation deteriorated especially on alkali medium. Decreasing degumming time in alkali medium from 120 min to 30 min reduced the strength loss from 45% to 33%. Optimal degumming was found to be in an alkali media at 103 kPa for 30 min.Originality/valueThere is very little information available on Eri silk fibers produced in Kenya. Results of this study provide an optimized conventional degumming procedure suitable for small scale farmers in rural areas practicing Eri silk fiber production.

Performance and cost-benefit analysis of Isa Brown layers on different management systems

BackgroundFew literatures exist on the performance and cost implication of birds reared on different management system. The cost benefit analysis of rearing Isa Brown layers on three different management systems was evaluated in a 9 (9)-week feeding trial. One hundred and forty-four (144) points of lay (19 weeks old) Isa-Brown chickens were procured from a reputable farm in Osun state. The birds were placed on three (3) treatments (battery cage, deep litter, and free range) of three (3) replicates and sixteen (16) birds per replicate in a completely randomized design. Birds reared on conventional cages were arranged into three birds per cage unit. Birds on deep litter were kept on wood shavings, in which perches, laying nests, feeders, and drinkers were provided. Hens on free range management system were kept in a large area of land camped using planks and hexagonal wire mesh which was partitioned into various replicates. Sheds were provided for the birds to protect them from harsh weather conditions, and perches, laying nests, feeders, and drinkers were also provided. The birds on all the treatments (battery cage, deep litter and free range) were given the same diet, and the study period lasted for sixty-five days. The weight gain per bird, percentage weight gain, hen day production (HDP), egg mass index, and feed conversion ratio were determined. At the end of the experiment, these records were used to evaluate economic indices.ResultsThe result showed that only the feed intake and total feed intake were significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by management systems in all the parameters measured for performance. The daily feed intake, total feed intake total cost of feed consumed, quantity of egg produced per bird, revenue generated from eggs, production cost, net benefit, cost-benefit ratio, and percentage cost of production were significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by management systems. Birds kept on deep litter system recorded the highest (48.87) number of eggs produced. The cost of construction was recorded to be highest in battery cage system while construction of free range facilities was at the minimum. Revenue generated from egg sold was highest (₦1384.56) in deep litter system while free range recorded the least significant (p < 0.05) (₦1301.44) value. Total cost of producing table eggs was significantly (p < 0.05) highest (₦2251.54) in battery cage, while free range had the least (₦2074.88) cost of production. Free range birds recorded the highest (₦326.56) net benefit, while the least (₦195.24) net benefit was obtained in battery cage.ConclusionIt was therefore concluded that free range management system resulted into better profit margin and could however be adopted by small scale farmers in rural areas willing to practice backyard poultry farming.

FORMATION OF SMALL-SCALE REGIONAL AGRO-INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS AS A BASIS FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The agrarian sector of the Ukrainian economy is characterized by a number of problems in agriculture, rural development and rural areas. Problems in the agrarian sphere arose both against the background of the peculiarities and specifics of the industry, and against the background of political, economic and social changes in the country. The purpose of the article is to summarize the theoretical approaches to the formation of small-scale regional agro-industrial clusters as a basis for sustainable rural development and to propose the creation of agro-industrial infrastructure management to enhance the development of small business as an integrated form of cluster association. The article is devoted to the problem of formation of regional small-scale agro-industrial clusters as a basis for stable development of the agrarian sector of the economy. It is proposed as an integration form of cluster integration to create agro-industrial infrastructure management, which operates on the basis of logistical coordination and provides maximum synergistic effect and harmonization of economic interests of participants of economic processes in the cluster. The model of interaction of participants of regional agro-industrial cluster of small form of economic activity in modern economic conditions is developed and its role in activation of small business development in agrarian economy of the region is substantiated. It has been found out that agro-industrial infrastructure management, as part of a cluster, must consist of a set of elements of the defining and supporting systems that are combined by material flows. In turn, the defining system has four interrelated element groups (processing, transportation, warehousing and marketing) and the support system has four interrelated element groups (regulatory, financial, logistical and personnel support). The types of small farms in rural areas, which are the basis for the formation of regional agro-industrial clusters of small farms, are presented, namely: small agricultural enterprises, farms, personal peasant farms, households, sole proprietors, agricultural cooperatives. The formation of small-scale agro-industrial clusters as an effective mechanism for solving socio-economic problems in rural areas contributes to employment and enhances the competitiveness of agro-industrial production.

Appraising drinking water quality in Ikem rural area (Nigeria) based on chemometrics and multiple indexical methods.

The continuous deterioration of drinking water quality supplies by several anthropogenic activities is a serious global challenge in recent times. In this current study, the drinking water quality of Ikem rural agricultural area (southeastern Nigeria) was assessed using chemometrics and multiple indexical methods. Twenty-five groundwater samples were collected from hand-dug wells and analyzed for physicochemical parameters such as pH, major ions, and heavy metals. The pH of the samples (which ranged between 5.2 and 6.7) indicated that waters were slightly acidic. Cations and anions (except for phosphate) were within their respective standard limits. Except for Mn, heavy metals were also found to be below their maximum allowable limits. Factor analysis identified both geogenic processes and anthropogenic inputs as possible origins of the analyzed physicochemical parameters. Modified heavy metal index, geoaccumulation index, and overall index of pollution revealed that all the hand-dug wells were in excellent condition, and hence safe for drinking purposes. However, pollution load index, water quality index (WQI), and entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI) revealed that some wells (about 8-12%) were slightly contaminated, and hence are placed in good water category. A hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was performed based on the integration of the WQI and EWQI results. The HCA revealed two major quality categories of the samples. While the first cluster comprises of samples classified as excellent drinking water by both WQI and EWQI models, the second cluster comprises of about 12% samples which were identified as good water by either the WQI or EWQI.

Phenotypic characterization of local Peranakan Etawa goat reared in Polman regency, West Sulawesi

Goats are one of the mainstay commodities for farmers in rural areas, especially in several development centers in the West Sulawesi region, Indonesia. Generally the local goats that are kept are Kacang goats which are the type of meat production, but since the introduction of the Etawa breed most of the goat population that is currently being kept is from the Peranakan Etawa (PE) goat which is a cross between Kacang and Etawa goats which later develop into dual-purpose goats (meat and milk). The purpose of this study was to characterize the phenotypic (qualitative and quantitative) properties of Peranakan Etawa (PE) goats which were maintained by communities in the West Sulawesi region, Indonesia. This study used a survey method by identifying the qualitative and quantitative performance of the PE goat population. Characterization activities carried out were to identify the performance criteria of qualitative traits which included the characteristics of coat color, horn and ear shape and quantitative properties such as body weight, height, body length and chest circumference and chest width. A total of 113 goats (111 females and 2 male Peranakan Etawa breeds) were selected to be used as samples from the existing goat population. Peranakan Etawa breeding performance based on morphometric data included the characteristics of shoulder height (67.98 ± 5.61 cm), back height (71.34 ± 5.73 cm), body length (71.70 ± 6.46 cm), chest circumference (72.19 ± 6.46 cm), chest width (15.41 ± 1.86 cm) and body weight (33.04 ± 6.09 kg). The qualitative and quantitative performance of Etawa breeds in West Sulawesi is very diverse and need genetic improvement to meet Indonesia National Quality Standards (SNI).

Mobile Money, Output and Welfare Among Smallholder Farmers in Ghana

The objective of this study is to examine the impact of mobile money (m-money) adoption on some household outcomes such as farm output, welfare (consumption expenditure), and wealth (value of assets). Using primary data collected from three districts in Ghana, three Propensity Score Matching methods were employed to estimate the m-money adoption effect on the household outcomes. It is found that advertisements and higher than basic levels of education, among other variables, were important in influencing the adoption of m-money among smallholder farmers. The adoption of m-money was also seen to have an enhancing effect on the household outcome variables (farm output, welfare, and wealth) of smallholder farmers. The results suggest that mobile money can help enhance some of the smallholder economic outcomes that are relevant for rural development and poverty reduction. Policy options should consider expanding m-money services to smallholder farmers in rural areas.

Development Potential of Integrated Farming System (Local Cattle - Food Crops)

Local cattle farming as an income source for farmers in rural areas is mostly developed traditionally. The local cattle farm continues, even though it is a side business, but is a mainstay in supporting national beef needs. The problem is whether integration of local cattle and food crops have the potential to be developed by farmers. The research was conducted to determine the potential integration of local cattle local and corn in North Bolaang Mongondow Regency. A survey method using a purposive sampling selected 60 farmers from Sangkub District where farmers practiced an integrated cattle-crops farming. Data were subjected to proximate and feasibility analysis. The results showed that the total cattle owned by respondents were 209. The feed consisted of grass and corn waste, with an average consumption of 5.33 and 11.15 kg/head/day, respectively. A proximate analysis of waste corn reported 86.48% dry material, 7.36% crude protein, 1.84% fat, 28.95% crude fiber, 9.10% ash and 68.18% carbohydrate. Respondents' income from cattle farming in Bintauna and Sangkub Districts were Rp. 151,000,000 vs. Rp. 169,900,000, production costs were Rp. 101,150,625 vs. Rp. 107,298,593.8, and RC ratio was 1.49 vs. 1.58. In conclusion, corn waste consumption was greater (67.66%) than the grass. RC ratio value &gt;1 indicated that cattle farming was feasible. The corn-cattle farming integration system can minimize environmental pollution because it enables the concept of LEISA (Low External Input Sustainability Agriculture).

Data collection methods in rural tourism in the eyes of respondents

The aim of this study was to verify the reliability and user-friendliness of some of the most popular ways of collecting information from respondents. The article provides a synthetic review of the use of various research methods and techniques, which is supplemented by results of the author’s own survey of 280 people who visited guest farms in rural areas of Mazowieckie province in 2019. The respondents found online and paper-based surveys the most user-friendly method while they rated telephone interviews as the least user-friendly. Asked to assess the reliability of data collection techniques, the respondents considered covert observation and mystery shopping to be the most reliable, while the telephone interview was regarded as the least trustworthy. The assessment of the user-friendliness and reliability of different data collection methods and techniques varied by gender, age and the level of education. It can be expected that insights from the study can help to improve the methodology of rural tourism research.

Land Concentration, Land Grabbing and Sustainable Development of Agriculture in Romania

Land grabbing has become a priority topic in academic research and a political concern, due to interests in the dynamics of the phenomenon and its negative impact on the sustainable development of agriculture in rural areas. This phenomenon generates changes in production systems of agriculture with adverse environmental consequences, adversely affects socio-economic and cultural conditions and leads to lower overall efficiency in agriculture. This article analyses the links between land concentration, land grabbing and sustainable development of agriculture in Romania compared to other old and new EU-28 countries. The results of the research show that the land grabbing in Romania has a significant dimension compared to the other countries analyzed, which has led to an inadequate agrarian structure and adverse effects on the sustainable performance of agricultural holdings and the sustainable development of rural areas.

Source Tracking and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in Surface Waters of Qingdao, China, with Emphasis on Influence of Animal Farming in Rural Areas.

The occurrence and potential sources of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface waters from a large coastal city Qingdao, North China, were investigated. Forty-five compounds were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results showed that 28 compounds of PPCPs were detected. The most frequently detected compounds were atrazine, clarithromycin, nonylphenol, and bisphenol A with the detection rates > 90%. Paracetamol showed the highest concentration up to 4400ng/L (mean 152.5ng/L), followed by ampicillin (max. 2980ng/L) with the highest mean concentration (229.3ng/L), iopromide (max. 1744ng/L, mean 74.5ng/L), atrazine (max. 1612ng/L, mean 96.1ng/L), and bisphenol A (max. 1384ng/L, mean 78.3ng/L). The contamination levels and composition profiles of PPCPs along the rivers flowing through rural and urban areas and in seawater showed large spatial variability. Typical source markers and principle component analysis were used to track and differentiate the potential PPCP sources. The emphases of the study were the influence of animal farming in rural areas on PPCP composition profiles and the ecological risk. The results indicated that PPCPs in Qingdao surface water mainly came from three potential sources, i.e., treated wastewater (effluents from WWTPs), untreated wastewater, and nonpoint sources in agricultural areas.