Ruminative Thinking Research Articles

Self‐Distancing Regulates the Effect of Incidental Anger (vs. Fear) on Affective Decision‐Making Under Uncertainty

ABSTRACTEmotions integral to a task are often adaptive, particularly in situations where outcomes and probabilities are not known. However, decisions are also influenced by emotions that arise from situations unrelated to the task. This is especially the case with negative emotions like fear and anger, which also tend to be accompanied by ruminative thinking that might divert decision‐makers' attention from the task at hand. In two preregistered experiments, we show how self‐distancing regulates the influence of incidental anger (vs. fear) on decision‐making under uncertainty. Participants recalled and reflected on a fear‐related or anger‐related event from either a self‐immersed or self‐distanced perspective. Next, they completed a task that is commonly used to measure affective decision‐making under uncertainty, the Iowa Gambling Task. The results in both experiments indicated that self‐immersed angry (vs. fearful) decision‐makers were significantly slower to avoid the risky, disadvantageous decks. These findings demonstrate how the ways in which we process negative emotional events shape their carryover effects in decision‐making under uncertainty and point to self‐distancing as a potential tool to control incidental emotional influences.

The health context paradox in the relationship between victimization, classroom bullying attitudes, and adolescent depression: An analysis based on the hlm model

From the perspective of the health context paradox, this study examined the relationship between adolescent victimization and depression based on the diathesis-stress model and attribution theory using a nested model. A survey was conducted on 3743 Chinese adolescents using the Bullying & Victimization Scale, Rumination Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, and Bullying Attitude Scale. The results disclosed that victimization had a positive impact on depression, rumination played a mediating role between victimization and depression, and classroom anti-bullying attitudes heightened the correlation between victimization and developing depression as well as between victimization and engaging in rumination thinking. This study provides a new cross-level perspective to reduce the occurrence of depression among bullied adolescents and further validates the health context paradox, expanding its applicability range. It also provides new experimental research references for reducing depression among bullied adolescents from a more comprehensive, cross-level perspective in the future.

Modeling Effects of Rumination on Free Recall Using ACT-R.

Ruminative thinking, characterized by a recurrent focus on negative and self-related thought, is a key cognitive vulnerability marker of depression and, therefore, a key individual difference variable. This study aimed to develop a computational cognitive model of rumination focusing on the organization and retrieval of information in memory, and how these mechanisms differ in individuals prone to rumination and individuals less prone to rumination. Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) was used to develop a rumination model by adding memory chunks with negative valence to the declarative memory. In addition, their strength of association was increased to simulate recurrent negative focus, thereby making it harder to disengage from. The ACT-R models were validated by comparing them against two empirical datasets containing data from control and depressed participants. Our general and ruminative models were able to recreate the benchmarks of free recall while matching the behavior exhibited by the control and the depressed participants, respectively. Our study shows that it is possible to build a computational theory of rumination that can accurately simulate the differences in free recall dynamics between control and depressed individuals. Such a model could enable a more fine-tuned investigation of underlying cognitive mechanisms of depression and potentially help to improve interventions by allowing them to more specifically target key mechanisms that instigate and maintain depression.

Depresyon Hastalarında Ruminasyon ve Bilişsel Esneklik Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi

Background: Depression is characterized by continuous depressed mood, anhedonia, loss of interest, and cognitive, behavioral, and physical symptoms. Many psychological factors such as individuals' cognitive processes, high neuroticism, low self-esteem have been reported to play important roles in the etiology, exacerbation, persistence, and treatment of depressive mood. The aim of this study is to compare the levels of rumination and cognitive flexibility in a healthy adult group without any mental disorders and adult patients followed up with depression.
 
 Materials and Method: In this cross-sectional case-control study, patients with depression (n=76, 34.1±9.32) and healthy controls (HG) (n=74, 34.5±10.5) were compared. The Sociodemographic Information Form, Beck Depression Inventory, Ruminative Thinking Scale, and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory were performed to all participiants.
 
 Results: The study showed that depressive patients had higher ruminative thought levels and lower cognitive flexibility levels than healthy individuals. In addition, it was found that cognitive flexibility and ruminative thought severity can explain 35% of the variability of depressive symptom severity in the patient group. In the healthy group, ruminative thought severity can explain 9 % of the variability of depressive symptom severity.
 
 Conclusions: The results of the study showed that ruminative thought and cognitive flexibility are important factors when predicting and preventing depression during the premorbid period and are useful when making formulation and determining treatment goals during the treatment. Therefore, interventions to improve cognitive flexibility and rumination are important. The clinicians should add interventions to cognitive flexibility and rumination into their treatment approach.

Depression and the susceptibility to anchoring bias

Abstract: Are depressive individuals more susceptible to anchoring effects? Does this susceptibility depend upon the affective nature of the event? Does individuals’ tendency to ruminative thinking have a role in these effects? We approach these questions by having participants (N=146) in a study perform an anchoring task (see Mussweiler & Strack, 2001) with neutral, negative, and depressive events, and subsequently indicate their level of depressive symptoms, via the Patient Health Questionnaire and levels of rumination via the Ruminative Response Scale. Results show anchoring effects to be stronger for neutral events than negative or depressive events. Both depression and rumination interfere positively with anchoring in such that the higher the levels of depression and rumination the higher the susceptibility to anchors. Both effects were shown to occur independently and not to be reliably moderated by the neutral, negative, or depressive nature of the events.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of the Default Mode Network to Improve Sleep in Individuals With Insomnia Symptoms: Protocol for a Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial.

Cortical hyperarousal and ruminative thinking are common aspects of insomnia that have been linked with greater connectivity in the default mode network (DMN). Therefore, disrupting network activity within the DMN may reduce cortical and cognitive hyperarousal and facilitate better sleep. This trial aims to establish a novel, noninvasive method for treating insomnia through disruption of the DMN with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, specifically with continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS). This double-blind, pilot randomized controlled trial will assess the efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as a novel, nonpharmacological approach to improve sleep through disruption of the DMN prior to sleep onset for individuals with insomnia. Primary outcome measures will include assessing changes in DMN functional connectivity before and after stimulation. A total of 20 participants between the ages of 18 to 50 years with reported sleep disturbances will be recruited as a part of the study. Participants will then conduct an in-person screening and follow-on enrollment visit. Eligible participants then conduct at-home actigraphic collection until their first in-residence overnight study visit. In a double-blind, counterbalanced, crossover study design, participants will receive a 40-second stimulation to the left inferior parietal lobule of the DMN during 2 separate overnight in-residence visits. Participants are randomized to the order in which they receive the active stimulation and sham stimulation. Study participants will undergo a prestimulation functional magnetic resonance imaging scan and a poststimulation functional magnetic resonance imaging scan prior to sleep for each overnight study visit. Sleep outcomes will be measured using clinical polysomnography. After their first in-residence study visit, participants conduct another at-home actigraphic collection before returning for their second in-residence overnight study visit. Our study was funded in September 2020 by the Department of Defense (W81XWH2010173). We completed the enrollment of our target study population in the October 2022 and are currently working on neuroimaging processing and analysis. We aim to publish the results of our study by 2024. Primary neuroimaging outcome measures will be tested using independent components analysis, seed-to-voxel analyses, and region of interest to region of interest analyses. A repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) will be used to assess the effects of active and sham stimulation on sleep variables. Additionally, we will correlate changes in functional connectivity to polysomnography-graded sleep. The presently proposed cTBS protocol is aimed at establishing the initial research outcomes of the effects of a single burst of cTBS on disrupting the network connectivity of the DMN to improve sleep. If effective, future work could determine the most effective stimulation sites and administration schedules to optimize this potential intervention for sleep problems. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04953559; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04953559. DERR1-10.2196/51212.

Orgasmic Disorder as Correlates of Marital Satisfaction among Couples in Tertiary Institutions in Benue State, Nigeria

The study examined orgasmic disorder as correlates of Sexual Satisfaction among couples in tertiary institutions in Benue State – Nigeria. Correlational survey design was adopted for the study. The population of the study was 2626 academic staff while 322 married academic staff were sampled using multi-stage sampling procedure for all the 9 tertiary institutions in Benue State for the study. The instruments for data collection used in the study were Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI) and Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (SFQ) with reliability coefficients of 0.793 for Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI) and 0.0675 for Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (SFQ) respectively. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) was used to test hypotheses at 0.05 significance. The result showed that there is a significant negative relationship between orgasmic disorder and marital satisfaction. Based on the findings, it is suggested that treatment plans for couples with orgasmic disorder should consider the client’s connection with their spouse, recognizing the interdependence between the two. Counsellors can utilize a Mindfulness-Based approach to help couples identify their thoughts and feelings, model adjustments, and offer encouragement during therapy. This facilitates the development of acceptance, compassion, and control over intrusive and ruminative thoughts. The study concluded that there is negative correlation between orgasmic disorder and marital satisfaction of couples in tertiary institutions in Benue State – Nigeria.

Ruminatif Düşünme ve Depresif Belirtiler Arasındaki İlişkide Cinsiyetin Etkisi

Rumination means dealing with one's own feelings and thoughts passively and repetitively. There are two types of rumination: reflection, and brooding. Rumination prepares a suitable ground for many mental disorders, especially depression. The incidence of depressive symptoms in women was reported to be higher than in men. It has been claimed that the frequency and severity of depression may be increasing due to rumination since rumination is also higher in women. Studies in the literature have often progressed on a single type of rumination, brooding. Reflection is often considered a positive coping style and protective because it is related to problem solving, but inconsistent results have been obtained in studies on the effect on depression. In our study, we aimed to examine the effect of gender on depression by considering reflection and brooding separately instead of evaluating rumination only through brooding. Two hundred and twenty-seven university students were invited to the study, and 196 of them agreed to participate in the study. A sociodemographic form, ruminative responses scale, and patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) were applied to the participants who accepted the study. Correlation analyses and linear regression were applied to the obtained data. Brooding and reflection scores were positively correlated with the PHQ-9 scores. Women got higher scores in brooding and reflection scales than men. Women got higher scores in PHQ-9 than men but it is not significant statistically. In linear regression analyses, brooding and reflection scores positively significantly predicted PHQ-9 scores. Women have higher depressive symptoms and are considered more ruminative, but only ruminative thinking (both brooding and reflection) can predict depressive symptoms. Interventions targeting both brooding and maladaptive reflection are recommended to treat major depression.

A cross-cultural look at the role of rumination in the relationship between trait anxiety and romantic breakup distress

Romantic breakups are considered ”normative” events because of their high prevalence, but they can also be stressful, and even traumatic experiences. Although there is an increasing interest in studying romantic breakups, there are few studies proposing mechanisms that turn a romantic breakup into a health problem. Based upon existing literature, we chose rumination as a mediator between trait anxiety and breakup distress. In addition, given that culture plays a significant role in both grief response and the process of rumination, we expected rumination plays a differential role in mediating the relationship between trait anxiety and breakup distress across Argentinian and North American samples, although we did not specify a moderation hypothesis due to absence of previous antecedents in the literature. To set a firm measurement foundation, we initially evaluated measurement invariance prior to testing substantive models. 415 Argentinians (78% female) and 383 USA (66% female) students who experienced a romantic breakup were recruited. Several measurement adjustments were needed to support metric invariance for the items. The indirect effect involving brooding rumination between the trait anxiety and breakup distress was significant in both countries, and not significantly different between the countries. Rumination thinking was shown as a full cross-cultural mediator of the relationship between trait anxiety and breakup distress in both countries. Our results could point at a starting point to think of rumination as a cross-culturally invariant mechanism explaining why insecure individuals (i.e., high trait anxiety) tend to suffer more during a breakup compared to less anxious individuals.

A multidimensional view of fear of missing out as a mediator between the need to belong and problematic smartphone use

Previous research has supported a multidimensional structure to conceptualize the fear of missing out. The present study investigates how does FOMO, conceptualized using a two-factor structure, mediate the relationship between the need to belong and problematic smartphone use. Malaysian undergraduates (N = 149) aged between 18 and 25 years old completed questionnaires on the need to belong, fear of missing out components, and problematic smartphone use. Confirmatory factor analysis assessed the validity of the two-factor fear of missing out structure, and a structural model was developed. The findings supported the applicability of the two-factor structure. Next, findings revealed that the need to belong positively predicted one's fears about missing out on rewarding experiences, followed by predicting one's ruminative thoughts about missing out and control strategies to avoid missing out, thus influencing the decision to avoid missing out. However, having a higher need to belong, stronger fears about missing out on rewarding experiences, and a stronger decision to avoid missing out did not predict problematic smartphone use. Future studies should consider investigating the intermediary role of FOMO using a multidimensional conceptualization to explain problematic smartphone use, and consider objective smartphone use measures when assessing smartphone use behaviors.

Reassessing rumination: Validity of the Day Reconstruction Method for Rumination (DRM-R) to assess episodes of rumination in daily life.

Rumination is a robust vulnerability to depression and potential treatment target. However, we know relatively little about rumination in daily life. This study tested the validity of a new approach for assessing daily episodes of rumination, the Day Reconstruction Method for Rumination (DRM-R). Participants (N = 127) who were either high or low in neuroticism completed baseline self-report measures (e.g., depression, trait rumination). Next, they completed the DRM-R by reconstructing the previous day into a series of "scenes," identifying discrete episodes of rumination, and responding to follow-up items about each episode. 78.6% of high neuroticism participants reported experiencing discrete periods of rumination, 80.0% reported constant ruminative thoughts in the back of their heads, and 68.6% reported ruminative thoughts of fluctuating intensity. Time spent ruminating was moderately correlated with trait measures of rumination and worry. Findings provide preliminary evidence that the DRM-R is a valid method for assessing discrete episodes of rumination in daily life. The DRM-R may reveal, ideographically, the relationship between specific thought content and features of ruminative episodes (e.g., length, frequency). Further research is needed to establish whether the DRM-R can detect changes in rumination across multiple days and how it corresponds with traditional daily diary methods and ecological momentary assessment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive and behavioral factors in the chronification of suicidal behavior

Relevance. Suicide is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Suicidal behavior is a complex phenomenon that includes suicidal thoughts, intentions and actions; and those actions do not always lead to death, but often turn into chronic suicidal behavior. The study of the factors in chronification of suicidal behavior is necessary for the development of evidence-based programs for the prevention of repeated suicide attempts.Aim of study. is to compare cognitive and behavioral strategies for coping with stress in patients with single suicide attempts and chronic suicidal behavior.The hypothesis of the study is that in patients with repeated suicide attempts, destructive cognitive and behavioral strategies for coping with stress are more pronounced.Materials and methods. The study included 119 patients treated at the somatopsychiatric and toxicology departments, 60 patients after the primary suicide attempt, 59 – after repeated ones. Patients were asked to complete the following procedures: Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1961; N.V. Tarabrina, 2001), Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck, 1961; Tarabrina, 2001), Rumination Scale (Treynor W. et al., 2003; adaptation by O.D. Pugovkina et al., 2021), Alexithymia Scale (Toronto Alexithymia Scale G.J. Taylor et al., 1985; adaptation by Starostina E.G. et al. 2009), COPE Inventory (Ch.S. Carver et al., 1989; adaptation by P.A. Ivanov and N.G. Garanyan, 2013).Results. Patients after repeated suicide attempts, compared with patients who made the first attempt, are more likely to be diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, have more pronounced symptoms of depression and suicidal readiness, higher rates of ruminative thinking and alexithymia — reflecting a deceptive cognitive style, — as well as indicators of the use of destructive behavioral strategies for coping with stress in the form of various types of avoidance behavior.

The Relationship between Perceived Pressure of Epidemic Information among College Students and Depression: The Moderating Effect of Rumination Thinking and School Belonging

The perceived pressure of epidemic information among college students as a social psychological factor can have an impact on depression among college students, and it is necessary to explore the mechanism of action between the two. Rumination, as a negative reaction mode, may be a moderating variable worth considering, and school belonging in social support can positively predict students' mental health and play a partial moderating role. This article explores the internal mechanisms of rumination thinking and school belonging through which college students perceive the impact of stress on depression through epidemic information, providing a new direction for preventing cognitive failure among college students.

The effect of ruminative thoughts on sexuality in obese women.

Ruminative thoughts play a significant role in the pathogenesis of disorders such as anxiety and depression. This study was conducted to investigate the impact of ruminative thoughts on the sexual functions of obese and non-obese women. This case-control study included individuals sexually active women aged 18 and above, and under 46 years, who applied to the university hospital's obesity clinic in 2021 and had not previously been diagnosed with the patient and/or their partner with organic and/or psychiatric diseases that could cause sexual dysfunction and/or being under treatment, as well as pregnancy. The participants consisted of pre-obese and obese individuals (n = 59), as well as non-obese individuals (n = 63). The Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire, Female Sexual Function Index, and Arizona Sexual Experiences Scale were administered to the voluntary participants. Using univariate and multivariate statistical models, the effects of obesity and volatile thought styles on the sexual experiences of obese and non-obese women were evaluated. The analyses conducted revealed that the scores of ruminative thoughts were not affected by obesity. After adjusting for age, it was observed that Arizona Sexual Experiences Scale scores were higher in pre-obese and obese women (p<0.05). In the multiple models created, Arizona Sexual Experiences Scale scores were negatively influenced by obesity, whereas Female Sexual Function Index scores were adversely affected by ruminative thought styles. In this study, while addressing sexual health for both preobese, obese, and non-obese women, the importance of considering predisposing psychological factors is emphasized. It emphasizes the importance of ruminative thoughts and obesity on sexual functioning in women. Psychological well-being and body image perception emerge as critical elements in this relationship.

Workplace Bullying Experience Predicts Same-Day Affective Rumination but Not Next Morning Mood: Results from a Moderated Mediation Analysis Based on a One-Week Daily Diary Study

The link between workplace bullying and impaired employee psychological health is well established. Insights into the role of cognitive processes in reaction to stressful events, as well as personality traits in this relationship, remain scarce. In this study, we investigated moderated mediation models that link workplace bullying with employee well-being and mood. The study employs both cross-sectional and longitudinal methodologies within the same group of employees with workplace bullying experience (n = 59). Results from a cross-sectional survey show that affective rumination fully mediates the link between workplace bullying and employee well-being. Contrarily, findings from a daily diary study indicate that day-to-day variations in bullying experiences do not affect the subsequent morning mood. Thus, workplace bullying primarily acts through affective ruminative thinking rather than having a direct effect, especially on individuals low in neuroticism. These insights contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the relevance of repetitive cognitive processes and personality traits as mechanisms that link workplace bullying with psychological well-being. Implications include the need for a better understanding of the accumulation processes of persistent ruminative thought and the relevance of stressor pile-up to explain spillover effects into the next day in order to understand long-term health impairment.

Work-related rumination declines with age but is moderated by gender.

Much is known about the physical effects of work and health, but less is known about how older workers unwind mentally from work, and their post-work ruminative thinking. The present study aimed to explore the association between age, gender and two types of work-related rumination: affective rumination, and problem-solving pondering. This study utilized a sample of 3991 full-time employees (working 30 or more hours per week), who were stratified into five age bands (18-25, 26-35, 36-45, 46-55, and 56-65 yrs.). Affective rumination was found to significantly decline in the older age groups (46 + yrs.), but this finding was moderated by gender. Males reported lower work-related rumination over the entire age range, but the greatest difference between males and females was observed in the 56-65 age category. The results for problem-solving pondering mirrored those of affective rumination but with the only exception that there was no significant difference in gender between those aged 18-25 years. These findings add to our understanding about how workers (between different age groups) mentally switch off from work and highlight the need for interventions to help older workers mentally recover from the effects of work.

Effects of fatigue, rumination thinking, and sleep quality on hopelessness in family caregivers of cancer patients.

The heavy care burden, long-term dependence of caring for cancer patients, and changing social roles put family caregivers at high risk of mental disorders and hopelessness. This explored the relationship between fatigue, sleep quality, rumination, and hopelessness, and provides suggestions to maintain caregivers' mental health. We investigated 536 family caregivers of cancer patients in three grade A hospitals in Liaoning Province who met the inclusion criteria on the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), Fatigue Scale-14 (FS-14), Nolen-Hoeksema Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Data were analyzed with SPSS 26.0, and Amos 22.0 was used to fit the structural equation model. The family caregivers had a higher degree of hopelessness and fatigue, while sleep quality and rumination were positively correlated with hopelessness (r = 0.483-0.906; P < 0.05). Fatigue and sleep quality can indirectly affect hopelessness through rumination thinking, while hopelessness has a direct effect on sleep. There are multiple action paths between fatigue and sleep quality, rumination thinking, and hopelessness. Family caregivers' physical and mental health can be maintained and hopelessness avoided by improving sleep quality, alleviating fatigue, and psychological counseling.

The effects of group psychodrama on the ruminative thinking style, dysfunctional attitudes, anxiety and depressive symptoms: a quasi-experimental study

Aim of the studyThe aim of the study where quasi-experimental method was used with the control group through pre-post test design was to investigate the effect of psychodrama on symptoms of ruminative thinking style and dysfunctional attitudes as well as the anxiety and depression.Subject or material and methodsThis study included 16 adults including 8 individuals in the psychodrama and 8 individuals in the control group. A group therapy was conducted with the psychodrama group for 12 sessions during 6 weeks; the control group was observed without any intervention.ResultsThe psychodrama group scale scores were significantly lower in end tests in the intragroup analysis; there was not any difference in the control group.DiscussionWith psychodramatic techniques, increasing and maintaining attention; reduce or replace ruminations by concretizing and be able to reprocess death, mourning, uncertain loss and trauma through staging; have the opportunity to experience functional attitudes in the sur-plus reality scene and develop functional beliefs and attitudes may have contributed to our results.ConclusionsOur results reveal that psychodrama techniques are useful in ruminative thinking and dysfunctional attitudes which play a role in the cognitive aspects of anxiety and depression.

An arts-based process to build Workforce agility

PurposeThe world of work is constantly evolving such that the Workforce in the previous era was driven by the need for stability and is now driven by the desire for creative disruption. While firms must respond to the challenges and dynamics continuously, employees must be ready for any upcoming change to progress despite the turbulence and attain a competitive position. This paper's focal theme is Workforce agility – the ability of employees to respond to and make the most out of changes. Studies on the personal factors affected by changes, in turn, influencing Workforce agility have been scarce. The authors propose a conceptual model with propositions to address this gap. Additionally, the authors propose an employee-centric experiential training practice to foster agility.Design/methodology/approachThe authors have employed conceptual description methodology to build propositions about the personal factors influencing Workforce agility and an arts-based intervention to enhance it.FindingsIntermodal arts-based intervention (IABI) can influence employees' epistemic curiosity, which aids with managing ruminative thoughts, thus enhancing Workforce agility, while dispositional joy moderates this relationship.Practical implicationsThe proposed “Intermodal Arts-Based Intervention (IABI)” can help firms move from a traditional training-based approach to an experiential one to foster their Workforce's agile capacities. Considerations for its implementation are explained.Originality/valueThis study is one of the first attempts to integrate multiple art forms as a change management practice. The conceptualized model also brings out the adaptive and maladaptive aspects of epistemic curiosity and rumination and the role of joy in promoting agile behaviors.

The aversiveness of intrusiveness: Evidence from involuntary musical imagery.

Intrusive thoughts are characterized by a sense of intrusiveness of foreign entry into cognition. While not always consisting of negative content, intrusive thoughts are almost solely investigated in that context. Involuntary Musical Imagery (INMI) offers a promising alternative, as it is a type of involuntary cognition that can be used to evaluate intrusiveness without negative content. In Study 1, 200 participants completed self-report questionnaires to assess several aspects of intrusiveness: meta-awareness, control, repetitiveness, frequency, and subjective experience of INMI. In Study 2, 203 participants completed self-report questionnaires to explore the clinical characteristics (depression, stress, anxiety, and rumination) which might mediate the connection between INMI frequency and INMI negative experience. Study 1 revealed, through exploratory factor analysis, that intrusiveness shares variance with the negative experience of INMI but not with INMI frequency. In Study 2, ruminative thinking was found to mediate the relationship between frequent INMI and the negative experience of INMI. These results suggest that INMI might be used to investigate intrusiveness in the lab without the potential confound of negative emotions. In addition, the results suggest that neither the content nor the frequency of intrusive thoughts can solely explain why these thoughts are aversive to some but not others. Ruminative style might be the missing link to explain how and why these intrusive thoughts become aversive and obsessive. In other words, we suggest that the cause for intrusiveness lies not in the thought or repetitiveness, but in the thinker.