Distribution Of Root System Research Articles

Crescimento aéreo e radicular da soja e de plantas de cobertura em camadas compactadas de solo

O cultivo de plantas de cobertura com sistema radicular vigoroso em rotação de culturas pode melhorar a qualidade física de solos compactados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o crescimento aéreo e radicular da soja e de cinco espécies utilizadas como plantas de cobertura de verão (guandu, guandu anão, mucuna preta, labe labe e crotalária juncea), em solo submetido a três níveis de compactação em subsuperfíce. Utilizou-se um Nitossolo Vermelho argiloso em vasos montados com anéis de PVC sobrepostos, com diâmetro interno de 20 cm e altura de 50 cm. A camada compactada localizada de 20-30 cm de profundidade foi caracterizada pelas densidades do solo de 1,13, 1,34 e 1,56 g cm-3 e 0,26, 0,66 e 1,98 MPa de impedância mecânica, respectivamente. Aos 60 dias da emergência das plantas, determinaram-se as massas da matéria seca da parte aérea e das raízes, a densidade do comprimento radicular e o diâmetro médio radicular. Apesar de alterar a distribuição do sistema radicular ao longo do perfil do solo, o impedimento físico em subsuperfície não diminuiu a produção total de raízes da soja e dos adubos verdes, com exceção da crotalária juncea. A mucuna preta foi a leguminosa mais tolerante e a soja a mais sensível à compactação do solo. O sistema radicular da crotalária juncea apresentou potencial de formação de "bioporos" compatível ao da mucuna preta, apesar de ter sido relativamente mais sensível à compactação do solo. O diâmetro médio das raízes da soja e da crotalária juncea apresentou correlação significativa com o crescimento radicular dentro da camada de solo compactado.

Roots, rhizosphere and soil: the route to a better understanding of soil science?

SummaryThe centenary of Hiltner's recognition of a rhizosphere effect is a convenient point to assess the impact of such thinking on the direction of soil science. A review of the major soil journals suggests that for much of the last century, Hiltner's insight had little effect on mainstream thinking outside of soil microbiology, but this situation is changing rapidly as the consequences of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on soil functioning assumes greater importance. Studies of root growth, root distributions and of rhizosphere processes over the last 25 years demonstrate both the size and distribution of root systems and the associated inputs from roots to soils. These inputs result in a plethora of dynamic reactions at the root–soil interface whose consequences are felt at a range of temporal and spatial scales. Root growth and respiration, rhizodeposition, and uptake of water and nutrients result in biological, chemical and physical changes in soils over variable distances from the root surface so that the rhizosphere has different dimensions depending on the process considered. At the root length densities common for many crop species, much of the upper 0.1 m of soil might be influenced by root activity for mobile nutrients, water and root‐emitted volatile compounds for a substantial proportion of the growing season. This brief review concludes that roots are an essential component of soil biology and of soil science.

Optimizing Application of Image Analysis Tools to Determine Physical Characteristics of Fine Roots

To understand the vital role of roots in plant growth, it is essential to know the dynamics and distribution of the plant root system. Research in this area has been limited severely by labor intensive techniques used for determination of physical characteristics of roots, especially fine roots. Nowadays, with development of various image analysis applications, it is possible to use methods that speed the process of fine root quantifying and, therefore, allow many more samples to be collected and processed for study. The accuracy of root measurements and time required greatly depend on the capabilities of the image acquisition equipment and the employed root preparation technique. At the same time, the optimal use of image analysis software can improve dramatically both precision and measuring speed. Our objective was to examine some fine root measuring issues common to most image analysis applications. These problems include choosing the proper image resolution, determining the appropriate threshold range and image parameters to measure, as well as reducing the impact of non-root objects on measurement accuracy. Using a numerical example, we describe techniques that can be used to minimize these problems and optimize the precision and accuracy of measurements. Our results suggest that optimal scanning resolution can be determined based on prior determination of root diameter and the minimum root diameter in an image must contain no less than three pixels. We also found that variation in measured root length can by minimized by determining threshold ranges. By applying numerical filters to images, we were able to decrease background noise ; however determination of the optimal filter ranges needed to be performed individually for each application and depend on the size of scanned roots and image resolution. The combined effect of using optimal image resolution, threshold ranges, and numeric filters can increase the efficiency of fine root image analysis in terms of precision and speed.

Relation between Growth and Vertical Distribution of Fine Roots and Soil Density in the Weibei Loess Plateau

The influence of woodland soil bulk density on the growth and distribution of fine root system of main planting tree species in the Weibei Loess Plateau was investigated by means of pot culture and field survey. Results indicated that in the woodland of Pinus tabulaeformis, soil bulk density increased with the depth at different sites, while in the woodland of Robinia pseudoacacia, soil bulk density was higher than that in P. tabulaeformis, and there was no clear difference across the profile. Further analysis implied that there existed negative correlations between soil bulk density and fine root length in the woodland of P. tabulaeformis. Results from pot culture indicated that although the effects of pot culture media on the fine root growth and development of different tree species seedlings were different, all treated seedlings grew better in the soil matter with medium bulk density and porosity and with the biggest biomass. Bulk density of pot culture media had clear effects on the growth and development of P. tabulaeformis and R. pseudoacacia seedling roots, especially on the former, whereas it had little effect on that of Platycladus orientalis and Prunus armeniaca var. ansu, whose fine root biomass changed little in different pot culture media.

Importance of root growth in overcoming planting stress

Root growth is critical to the establishment of planted seedlings. Seedlings can undergo stress just after planting if root growth is not sufficient to couple the seedling to available soil water. Stress occurs when a newly planted seedling’s root system can not supply enough water to transpiring needles to maintain a proper water balance and ensure survival. Thus, a newly planted seedling’s ability to overcome planting stress is affected by its root system size and distribution, root–soil contact, and root hydraulic conductivity. This paper describes how factors of root growth and water status of newly planted seedlings are important in overcoming the phenomenon of planting stress which then allows a newly planted seedling to enter the establishment phase of development.

Variation in shoot and root characteristics and their association with drought tolerance in lentil landraces

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus subsp. culinaris), generally grown as a rainfed crop, is often subjected to drought. Drought tolerance is closely related to the distribution of root systems in the soil. We studied seedling shoot and root characters in a set of eight randomly selected lentil genotypes collected from Ethiopia, India, Iran, Syria and ICARDA. Each group of genotypes represents a specific adaptation to the environmental conditions associated with its area of origin. The genotypes were evaluated during two seasons (1997 –1999) under field conditions. Thirty-five-day-old seedlings grown in pots in the open air were assessed for stem length, stem weight, taproot length, lateral root number, total root length and total root weight. Combined analyses over 2 years showed that these characters exhibited significant genotypic variability. Stem length, taproot length and lateral root number were highly correlated, both amongst themselves and with yield. High heritability estimates provided reliability in screening based on these traits. Regression analysis showed that stem length alone accounted for 85% of the variance that occurred in seed yield per plant. Cluster analysis showed that the landraces that originated in Iran and Syria, and the breeding lines developed at ICARDA are distinctly different from the lentil accessions that originated in countries at more southerly latitudes (India and Ethiopia). However, of the total of 40 genotypes, only one line (ILL 6002) was strikingly different from all other test genotypes. This line exhibited significantly superior root and shoot traits and yield, and, therefore, is a valuable germplasm for breeding drought tolerant cultivars.

Development and Distribution of Root System in Two GrainSorghum Cultivars Originated from Sudan under Drought Stress

The difference in rooting pattern between two grain sorghum cultivars differing in drought tolerance was investigated under drought stress. The cultivars, Gadambalia (drought-tolerant) and Tabat (droughtsusceptible), were grown in bottomless wooden or acrylic root boxes to examine root parameters. Gadambalia consistently exhibited higher dry matter production and leaf water potential than Tabat under drought stress in both root boxes. In the experiment with wooden root boxes, under a drought condition, Gadambalia extracted more water from deep soil layers (1.1-1.5 m), which was estimated from the reduction in soil water content, than Tabat. This was because Gadambalia had a significantly higher root length density in these soil layers. The high root length density was due to enhanced lateral root development in Gadambalia. In the other experiment with acrylic root boxes, though total root length in the upper soil layer (0-0.5 m) was declined by limited irrigation in both cultivars, the reduction in Gadambalia was moderate compared with that in Tabat owing to the maintenance of fine root growth. Unlike Tabat, Gadambalia had an ability to produce the nodal roots from higher internodes even under drought, which resulted in the high nodal root length of Gadambalia. The growth angle of nodal roots was significantly correlated with root diameter, and the nodal roots from the higher internodes had large diameters and penetrated into the soil more vertically. These results indicate that the responses of roots (i.e. branching and/or growth of lateral root, and nodal root emergence from higher internodes) to soil dryness could be associated with the drought tolerance of Gadambalia.

The use of gamma ray computed tomography to investigate soil compaction due to core sampling devices

Compaction processes can influence soil physical properties such as soil density, porosity, pore size distribution, and processes like soil water and nutrient movements, root system distribution, and others. Soil porosity modification has important consequences like alterations in results of soil water retention curves. These alterations may cause differences in soil water storage calculations and matric potential values, which are utilized in irrigation management systems. Because of this, soil-sampling techniques should avoid alterations of sample structure. In this work soil sample compaction caused by core sampling devices was investigated using the gamma ray computed tomography technique. A first generation tomograph with fixed source-detector arrangement and translation/rotational movements of the sample was utilized to obtain the images. The radioactive source is 241Am, with an activity of 3.7 GBq, and the detector consists of a 3 in. x 3in. NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal coupled to a photomultiplier tube. Soil samples were taken from an experimental field utilizing cylinders 4.0 cm high and 2.6 cm in diameter. Based on image analyses it was possible to detect compacted regions in all samples next to the cylinder wall due to the sampling system. Tomographic unit profiles of the sample permitted to identify higher values of soil density for deeper regions of the sample, and it was possible to determine the average densities and thickness of these layers. Tomographic analyses showed to be a very useful tool for soil compaction characterization and presented many advantages in relation to traditional methods.

Compactação do solo no desenvolvimento radicular e na produtividade da soja

Em solos compactados ocorrem mudanças na distribuição do sistema radicular das plantas em profundidade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito da compactação do solo no desenvolvimento radicular e na produtividade da soja em Latossolo Vermelho de textura média. Os tratamentos constituíram-se de 0, 1, 2, 4 e 6 passadas de um trator, lado a lado, sobre a superfície do solo. O delineamento experimental usado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Em dezembro de 2002, foi semeada soja (Glycine max cv. Embrapa 48) e, após a semeadura, foram coletadas amostras de solo nas camadas de 0,02-0,05, 0,07-0,10 e 0,15-0,18 m, para determinações físicas. No estádio R6 foram coletadas amostras de 0,10 m no sentido da linha x 0,20 m no sentido da entrelinha, nas camadas de 0,0-0,05, 0,05-0,10, 0,10-0,15 e 0,15-0,20 m, e na maturação das plantas foi avaliada a produtividade de grãos de soja em parcelas de 3,6 m². O aumento da compactação elevou a densidade radicular e a massa de matéria seca das raízes, na camada de 0,0-0,05 m, e causou decréscimo linear nas camadas mais compactadas de 0,05-0,10 e 0,10-0,15 m. A partir do decréscimo de 18% da densidade radicular, na resistência do solo à penetração de 0,85 MPa, na camada de 0,05-0,15 m, ocorreu redução na produtividade de grãos da soja. A compactação do solo promoveu modificações na distribuição do sistema radicular de soja.

Distribuição do sistema radicular da goiabeira 'Rica' produzida a partir de estaquia herbácea

O conhecimento da distribuição do sistema radicular de plantas, principalmente de perenes, não é muito estudado, devido a inúmeros fatores, dentre os quais, a dificuldade inerente ao método de amostragem. A presente pesquisa objetivou conhecer o sistema radicular da goiabeira através do método de escavação. Utilizando jatos de água, retirou-se a terra até um volume de 10 m³ (5x5x0,4m), subdivididos em paralelepípedos de 0,1 m³ (0,5x0,5x0,4m), expondo o sistema radical da goiabeira 'Rica'. Verificou-se um vigoroso sistema radicular sem a caracterização da raiz principal e com distribuição homogênea, grande número de raízes primárias, proporcionado pela adequada formação de mudas, através de estaquia herbácea.

Distribuição do sistema radicular de árvores de acáia-negra oriundas de mudas produzidas em diferentes recipientes

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a distribuição do sistema radicular de árvores de acácia-negra (Acacia mearnsii) com 3 anos de idade, provenientes de mudas formadas em diferentes recipientes e instaladas em um Argissolo no Rio Grande do Sul. Os recipientes utilizados foram: laminado, tubete redondo e bandeja de isopor. As avaliações da distribuição das raízes foram feitas pelo método da parede do perfil até 1 m de profundidade, na linha e na entrelinha de plantio. Foram feitas, também, análises físicas do solo: densidade, porosidade total e distribuição de poros. O recipiente usado na formação da muda influenciou o crescimento do sistema radicular da planta no campo. O laminado de madeira apresentou-se superior ao tubete quanto ao comprimento de raízes nas linhas de plantio. As raízes cresceram melhor nas linhas de plantio, onde as condições de densidade e porosidade do solo se encontravam mais adequadas.

Efeito da compactação do solo no desenvolvimento aéreo e radicular de cultivares de milho

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o desenvolvimento aéreo e radicular de duas cultivares de milho (Zea mays L.), em solo submetido a quatro níveis de compactação. Utilizou-se um Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro distroférrico de textura média, em vasos montados com anéis de PVC sobrepostos, com diâmetro interno de 14,5 cm e altura de 35 cm. Os níveis de compactação utilizados em subsuperfície foram caracterizados pelas densidades do solo de 1,28, 1,42, 1,56 e 1,69 Mg m³. As cultivares de milho foram o híbrido AG-5011 e a variedade Sol da Manhã. Aos 40 dias após a emergência das plantas, determinaram-se as massas da matéria seca da parte aérea e das raízes, a densidade do comprimento radicular e o diâmetro médio radicular. A compactação do solo comprometeu o desenvolvimento das plantas de milho híbrido e da variedade na mesma intensidade. Apesar de alterar a distribuição do sistema radicular ao longo do perfil do solo, o impedimento físico em subsuperfície não diminuiu a produção total de raízes de milho. O diâmetro médio radicular apresentou alta correlação com o crescimento de raízes no solo compactado. O sistema radicular do milho não é capaz de romper uma camada compactada de solo com resistência mecânica da ordem de 1,4 MPa.

한국에서 수분수지의 생태적 중요성과 대기오염 및 토양 산성화로 인한 식물의 수분스트레스 증대 효과

한국은 양적으로 강수량이 풍부하지만 강우현상이 편중되어 매년 일정기간의 가뭄기를 겪는다. 더구나 그 토양은 대부분 화강암에서 유래한 거친 입자의 것으로서 보수력이 낮다. 수 종의 참나무류와 소나무의 수분스트레스에 대한 반응 결과는 수분수지가 식생의 분포를 결정하는 주 요인임을 보여주었다. 뿐만 아니라 몇몇 상록식물의 월동기간 중 내한성 기작에 기인한 탈수 정도는 자연상태에서 그들의 분포와 밀접하게 관계되었다. 수분스트레스 처리 실험 결과 소나무는 건조에 대해 강한 내성을 보였지만 그 유식물은 가뭄기에 높은 고사율을 나타내었다. 그 고사율은 지소의 토양수분함량에 비례하는 경향이었다. 가뭄이 심한 6월 중 삼림토양의 수분함량과 수분스트레스 처리 실험에서 소나무 유식물이 영구위조점에 도달한 시점에서 배지토양의 수분함량을 비교한 결과는 가뭄기에 소나무 유식물의 높은 고사율이 수분부족에 기인함을 입증하였다. 대기오염물질 폭로실험 중 측정된 시료식물의 수분포텐셜은 시료식물에서 가시피해의 발생과 그 내성에 수분요인이 관계될 가능성을 보여주었다. 야외 현장 조사와 실내실험 결과 둘 다에서 심한 대기오염에 노출된 식물은 그렇지 않은 것과 비교하여 수분소실이 빠르게 일어나는데, 그것은 오염물질에 의한 잎 표면의 손상 정도와 관계되었다. 산성 토양에서 높은 함유량을 보이는 알루미늄은 식물의 뿌리생장을 억 제하거나 비정상적 분포를 가져와 수분스트레스를 유발하였다. 대기오염과 토양 산성화에 기인한 이러한 수분스트레스 효과는 한국의 기후와 토양이 가지는 기존의 수분결핍효과에 덧붙여져 삼림쇠퇴를 유발하는 주 요인으로 작용할 가능성이 있다. 토양의 유기물 함량을 높여 포장용수량 증가에 기여할 수 있는 sludge는 산성토양을 개량하는데 기존의 개량제 못지않은 효과를 보였고, 낙엽 추출물 또한 알루미늄에 의한 수분스트레스 효과를 완화시키는데 기여하였다. 이러한 결과를 종합하여 한국에서 삼림쇠퇴를 유발할 수 있는 스트레스요인들의 잠재적 상호작용을 모식화하였다. 나아가 그것을 완화할 수 있는 복원방안을 토양개량과 식생복원의 측면에서 제시하였다. Korea has plentiful precipitation but rainfall events concentrate on several months of rainy season in her weather condition. Korea, therefore, experiences drought for a given period every year. Moreover the soil has usually low water holding capacity, as it is composed coarse particles originated from the granite. Response of several oaks and the Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) on water stress showed that water budget was significant factor determining vegetation distribution. In addition, dehydration level due to cold resistance mechanism of several evergreen plants during the winter season was closely related to their distribution in natural condition. Experimental result under water stress showed that the Korean red pine was very tolerant to desiccation but the seedlings showed high mortality during the dry season. The mortality tended to proportionate to soil moisture content of each site. A comparison between soil moisture content during June when it is severe dry season and moisture content of the culture soil when the pine seedlings reached the permanent wilting point due to water withheld proved that high mortality during the dry season was due to water deficit. Water potential of sample plants measured during the exposure experiment to the air pollutant showed a probability that water related factors would dominate the occurrence of visible damage and the tolerance level of sample plants. In both field survey and laboratory experiment, plants exposed to air pollution showed more rapid transpiration than those grown in the unpolluted condition. The result would due to injury of leaf surface by air pollutants. Aluminum (Al/sup 3+/) increased in the acid soil not only inhibits root growth but also leads to abnormal distribution of root system and thereby caused water stress. The water stresses due to air pollution and soil acidification showed a possibility that they play dominating roles in inducing forest decline additionally to the existing water deficit due to weather and soil conditions in Korea. Sludge, which can contribute to improve field capacity, as it is almost composed of organic matter, showed an effect ameliorating the retarded growth of plant in the acidified soil. The effect was not less than that of dolomite known in widely as such a soil ameliorator. Litter extract contributed also to mitigate the water stress due to toxic Al/sup 3+/. We prepared a model showing the potential interaction of multiple stresses, which can cause forest decline in Korea by synthesizing those results. Furthermore, we suggested restoration plans, which can mitigate such forest decline in terms of soil amelioration and vegetation restoration.

Changes with age in the spatial distribution of roots of Eucalyptus clone in Congo : Impact on water and nutrient uptake

Clonal Eucalyptus plantations in the Pointe-Noire region have been established on sandy and nutrient poor soils, and carry potential risk of depleting water and nutrient. To assess these risks, water and nutrient budgets should be calculated. However, the accuracy of hydrological models is strongly dependent on a realistic description of root distribution in soil. The spatial distribution of root systems in a chronosequence of clonal stands was then studied, using root intersect counting. The stands were 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years and 9 years old. For each stand we studied three vertical profiles perpendicular to the planting row at different spacing from a representative tree. The profiles were divided into square grid cells of 25 cm 2, and the number of roots belonging to three diameter classes (between 0.1 and 1, 1 and 10 mm, and over 10 mm) were counted in each grid cell. The profiles were 2.50 m wide (half the distance between the planting rows) and 3 m deep, except for the two youngest stands (1.5 m deep). Spatial statistical analyses and analysis of variance were carried out to describe root distributions and their spatial and temporal changes. We observed that: (1) The trees quickly developed an extensive root system. One year after planting the root system extended to depth beyond 3 m deep and up to the middle of the inter-row. (2) Root density decreased sharply with depth, with most fine roots in the surface layers. The number of fine root intersects in the 0–25 cm surface soil layer represented 16–53% of the total throughout the profile depending on stand age and the type of profile. (3) The percentage of root intersects in surface layers increased with stand age: this may reflect the greater concentration of nutrients in surface layers. (4) High variability in root densities was observed in the surface soil layers but no gradient of decrease from the planting row to the middle of the inter-row could be underscored. However, the highest root densities were generally observed under the stump. These patterns of distribution allow rapid access to soil water and nutrients, reduce loss by deep drainage, and may partially explain the fairly high productivity of these plantations.

Influence of groundwater depth on the seasonal sources of water accessed by Banksia tree species on a shallow, sandy coastal aquifer.

In Mediterranean ecosystems vegetation overlying shallow, transient aquifers is often dominated by woody phreatophytes, trees and shrubs that have been shown to be dependent on groundwater for their water requirements. Natural and anthropogenic alterations of groundwater tables (abstraction) are of clear importance to phreatophytic vegetation as reduction of water tables may sever these plants from their natural water sources. Seasonal water sources were determined for species growing on a coastal dune system that overlies a shallow sandy aquifer in south-western Australia. The plants studied grew over groundwater that ranged in depth from 2.5 to 30m. The naturally occurring stable isotope of hydrogen (deuterium, δ2H) was used to distinguish potential water sources. Isotopic ratios from vascular water of the dominant species of the study area (Banksia ilicifolia R. Br. and Banksia attenuata R. Br. trees) were compared with those of potential sources of precipitation, soil moisture and groundwater. A relatively shallow-rooted perennial shrub, Hibbertia hypericoides Benth., was also included as an isotopic reference. The results suggest that both B. attenuata and B. ilicifolia are phreatophytic as they derived some of their water from groundwater throughout the dry-wet cycle, with the exception of B. attenuata at the site of greatest depth to groundwater (30m) which did not use groundwater. A high proportion (>50%) of groundwater use was not maintained throughout all seasons. With the onset of the hot Mediterranean summer, progressive drying of the surface soils resulted in increased use of groundwater and deep soil moisture. During the wet winter plants used proportionately more water from the upper layers of the soil profile. The degree to which groundwater was utilised by the study species was dependent on the proximity of groundwater, availability of moisture in shallower horizons of the soil profile, root system distribution and maximum root depth.

Fractal and Multifractal Analysis of Cassava Root System Grown by the Root-Box Method

The root system development and its localized distribution were examined using cassava plants grown in narrow root boxes of appropriate sizes which were adjusted to the root growth. Analyses based on fractal geometry were applied in addition to measurements of the weight and length of the root systems to evaluate the root distribution quantitatively. The root system distribution was converted to a digitized image, and the fractal dimension was calculated by the box-counting method (Dbox) for the whole root system and different positions in the soil. Furthermore, 1000 random measurements for local fractal dimension by the mass-radius method (Dlocal) were conducted per root system, and the multifractal spectrum was analyzed. The total root weight increased until 90 days after planting (DAP), whereas the total length ceased to increase at 60 DAP. Neither apparent bulking of storage root nor decrease in root length was observed during the experimental period. The potential rooting habit of cassava was two-dimensionally exhibited under a uniform soil environment in the boxes. The complexity in root distribution as a whole root system shown by the global D (Dbox) was almost constant. However, both the trends in positional Dbox difference and multifractal analysis showed that the root distribution was localized and heterogeneity in the localization changed with root system development. The root system of cassava grown in the boxes can be characterized as an abundant but uneven root distribution with a highly advanced branching pattern by large global D and kurtosis of the multifractal spectra.

Tree species diversity and soil patchiness in a temperate broad-leaved forest with limited rooting space

Summary In natural forest communities of Central Europe, Fagus sylvatica predominates in the tree layer under a wide range of site conditions due to a remarkable competitive ability. An exception are skeleton-rich soils such as screes where several other broad-leaved tree species co-exist with, or even replace, F. sylvatica . Little is known about the mechanisms that lead to the stable co-existence of 4–6 or more tree species on these sites. In a Tilia-Fagus-Fraxinus-Acer-Ulmus forest on a scree (stone content 57 vol. %), we analysed the above- and below-ground biomass structure, and the horizontal distribution of the tree fine root systems. Fine roots were identified on the species level by means of morphological attributes. In the highly patchy soil we assessed the evidence for below-ground habitat partitioning which might promote species co-existence. Tilia platyphyllos accounted for 46% of the stems and 40% of the total leaf area, whereas F. sylvatica reached 42% of the leaf area with a much lower stem density (24% of the stand total). T. platyphyllos was the dominant species in the rhizosphere with 56% of the total fine root biomass in the topsoil (0–10 cm depth). F. sylvatica contributed only 19% to the fine root biomass despite its extensive leaf area. The other 4 species held further 18% of the leaf area and 25% of the fine root biomass. The fine root systems of the trees showed stem-centred distribution patterns with low root densities at distances > 5.5 m, and a remarkably small overlap among the co-existing species. In 22% of all soil samples we found no tree roots at all; roots of only one species were present in 62% of the samples, roots of two or more species were confined to only 16% of the collective. Compared to other Central European mono-specific F. sylvatica forests with a less restricted soil volume, the scree forest was characterised by a low average fine root density, a high proportion of root-free soil patches and very high local fine root densities. Our results indicate a spatial segregation of the fine root systems of neighbouring trees due to a high stone content which may reduce root competition in this mixed stand. We suggest that partitioning of below-ground rooting space due to physical barriers is a mechanism that promotes tree species diversity in Central European forests on skeleton-rich and patchy soils.

Resistência do solo à penetração e desenvolvimento do sistema radicular do milho (Zea mays) sob diferentes sistemas de manejo em um Latossolo Roxo

As modificações estruturais causadas no solo pelos diferentes sistemas de manejo podem resultar em maior ou menor compactação, que poderá interferir na densidade do solo, na porosidade, na infiltração de água no solo e no desenvolvimento radicular das culturas. Assim, este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar, em condições de campo, os efeitos da estrutura, umidade e resistência do solo à penetração no desenvolvimento do sistema radicular do milho (Zea mays), sob sistema convencional (aração mais grade niveladora há mais de dez anos) e plantio direto (há mais de vinte anos). As avaliações foram realizadas em um Latossolo Roxo argiloso, na região norte do estado do Paraná - Brasil, cultivado com milho, no verão, e trigo, no inverno. Os resultados mostraram que valores de resistência do solo à penetração superiores a 3,5 MPa não restringiram desenvolvimento radicular do milho, porém influenciaram a sua morfologia. O plantio direto apresentou melhores condições de continuidade estrutural para o desenvolvimento radicular do que o sistema convencional, tendo sido sua resistência mais afetada pela distribuição estrutural do que pela umidade do solo.

137Cs availability for soil to understory transfer in different types of forest ecosystems

A quantitative analysis of 137Cs bioavailability in forest soils in the long term after the Chernobyl NPP accident based on a 3-year (1996–1998) investigation is presented. Five forest sites with different trees, composition and properties of soil were studied to identify factors determining radiocaesium transfer to different understory species. The following parameters were investigated: 137Cs activity concentrations and its speciation in various horizons of forest soil, accumulation of this radionuclide by different species of understory vegetation and distribution of root biomass in the soil profile. It has been shown that one decade after the deposition maximum 137Cs activity in soil of the experimental sites considered is located in different soil layers dependent on moisture regime, characteristics of litter and soil properties. A linear dependence between aggregated transfer factors for different species and groups of species of understory vegetation and exchangeable and available fractions of radiocaesium in soil was found. The vertical distribution of 137Cs activity, percentage of exchangeable radiocaesium in each horizon of litter and soil, as well as distribution of root systems (mycelia) over the soil profile are key factors governing variations in the availability of 137Cs for transfer to all forest understory components.

Temporal and spatial distribution of roots and competition for nitrogen in pea-barley intercrops – a field study employing 32P technique

Root system dynamics, productivity and N use were studied in inter- and sole crops of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) on a temperate sandy loam. A 32P tracer placed at a depth of 12.5, 37.5, 62.5 or 87.5 cm was employed to determine root system dynamics by sampling crop leaves at 0, 15, 30 and 45 cm lateral distance. 15N addition was used to estimate N2 fixation by pea, using sole cropped barley as reference crop. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), which is defined as the relative land area under sole crops that is required to produce the yields achieved in intercropping, were used to compare the crop growth in intercrops relative to the respective sole crops. The 32P appearance in leaves revealed that the barley root system grows faster than that of pea. P uptake by the barley root system during early growth stages was approximately 10 days ahead of that of the pea root system in root depth and lateral root distribution. More than 90% of the P uptake by the pea root system was confined to the top 12.5 cm of soil, whereas barley had about 25–30% of tracer P uptake in the 12.5 – 62.5 cm soil layer. Judging from this P uptake, intercropping caused the barley root system to grow deeper and faster lateral root development of both species was observed. Barley accumulated similar amounts of aboveground N when grown as inter- and sole crop, whereas the total aboveground N acquired by pea in the intercrop was only 16% of that acquired in the pea sole crop. The percentage of total aboveground N derived from N2 fixation in sole cropped pea increased from 40% to 80% during the growth period, whereas it was almost constant at 85% in intercropped pea. The total amounts of N2 fixed were 95 and 15 kg N ha−1 in sole cropped and intercropped pea, respectively. Barley was the dominant component of the pea-barley intercrop, obtaining 90% of its sole crop yield, while pea produced only 15% of the grains of a sole crop pea. Intercropping of pea and barley improved the utilization of plant growth resources (LER > 1) as compared to sole crops. Root system distribution in time and space can partly explain interspecific competition. The 32P methodology proved to be a valuable tool for determining root dynamics in intercropping systems.