Root Nouns Research Articles

THE EARLY 20 CENTURY ENGLISH BORROWABILITY FROM THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES

The article focuses on a lexicographic investigation of foreign words with special focus on the borrowings from the Romance languages other than French in the English language in the early 20 century (E20). Language distribution of the research proved that the Romance languages donated significant vocabulary into English in E20. Historical background was studied for better understanding of the respective cultural standards of the analyzed languages and the effect of their lexical influence. The article proposes the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of Latin, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese words: in the language distribution 59,4% % of foreign words were borrowed from these languages. It was proved that words from different semantic domains differ in their borrowability: Latin as the important supplier of vocabulary into English throughout its history (medicine 17,8%, literature 14,2%, law terminology 14,2%, educational terms 7,1%, theology 3,5% etc.); Italian (food and drink 28,6%, art, painting literature terms 18,5%, musical vocabulary 14,8%); Spanish (cultural peculiarities 40%, food items 20%), Portuguese (dance names, clothes items). Differentiation into word classes of borrowed words (other than French) was given and it has been found out that nouns are more borrowable than other parts of speech in all described languages. Morphological characteristics of Italian noun-forming suffixes was given: 59% root nouns, nouns with the most common diminutive suffix -ino/ine/ini – 13,6%, popular diminutive suffix -etto/etta, often used with affectionate overtones – 9%, -ella – 9%, nouns with augmentatives -one/ona – 4,5%, etc. The author hopes that the presented classification of borrowed Italic vocabulary of E20 performed on the basis of lexicographic investigation is undoubtedly a promising field of research. The results of this study are of direct practical relevance.

On the etymology of Greek ἅλις ‘in abundance, in throngs; enough’

Building on a so far neglected root-etymology by Boisacq (1923), the present paper proposes to analyze the Greek adverb ἅλις ‘in abundance, in throngs; enough’ (~ Hesychian gloss γάλι ‘enough’) as the lexicalized locative singular of a mobile root noun PIE *su̯élH- / *su̯l̥H-́ ‘swelling, bulging’ ⇒ ‘heap’, belonging to the PIE root *su̯elH- ‘to swell’.

Indonesian Translation Equivalence Of Action Verbs On Linkedin Homepage Template

An online platform to find professional opportunities, LinkedIn, reaches more than 22 million Indonesian users. The Indonesian version of the LinkedIn homepage certainly plays a significant role to spread information. This study has the purpose to describe the Indonesian translation equivalence of action verbs on the LinkedIn homepage template. The result shows that the translations are: (1) formal equivalences in the form of root verbs, (2) formal equivalences in the form of root verbs plus affixes, and (3) dynamic equivalences in the form of root nouns with no mark describing amount. This study is expected to contribute to the field of translation, especially in the online platform.

О семантике славянских существительных с префиксом *na- (к проблеме влияния отглагольного именного словообразования на отыменное)

The prevailing semantics of Russian and Slavic nouns with the prefix na- is determined by the primary function of the prefix — it designates an object as located on top of the root noun: Slav. *narǫka ‘bracelet’ (lit. ‘thing on top of hand’). However, another type of correlation between the semantics of the prefixed noun and the root noun is possible: the root noun in this case denotes the object itself, which, thanks to the preceding prefix, is characterized as located on top, so that the derived noun corresponds semantically to a reverse arrangement of the root noun and prefix — ‘object (which) is on top’, see Slav. *naledъ ‘ice-crusted ground’ (lit. ‘ice that is on top’). The emergence of this semantic pattern of denominative nouns with the prefix *na- can be explained by the patterning influence of nouns derived from prefixed verbs: cf. Slav. *nasypati ‘pour on/into’ → *nasypь ‘embankment’.

Word-Embeddings Distinguish Denominal and Root-Derived Verbs in Semitic

Proponents of the Distributed Morphology framework have posited the existence of two levels of morphological word formation: a lower one, leading to loose input-output semantic relationships; and an upper one, leading to tight input-output semantic relationships. In this work, we propose to test the validity of this assumption in the context of Hebrew word embeddings. If the two-level hypothesis is borne out, we expect state-of-the-art Hebrew word embeddings to encode (1) a noun, (2) a denominal derived from it (via an upper-level operation), and (3) a verb related to the noun (via a lower-level operation on the noun's root), in such a way that the denominal (2) should be closer in the embedding space to the noun (1) than the related verb (3) is to the same noun (1). We report that this hypothesis is verified by four embedding models of Hebrew: fastText, GloVe, Word2Vec and AlephBERT. This suggests that word embedding models are able to capture complex and fine-grained semantic properties that are morphologically motivated.

On Common Root Nouns of the Lithuanian Language with the Suffixes -(i)acija and -imas

The article discusses common root nouns of the Lithuanian language with the ending of foreign origin -(i)acija and the suffix of Lithuanian origin -imas. The study, which was based on the analysis of 406 Lithuanian words, revealed that some of the words with -(i)acija form a derivational opposition with verbs; therefore, they should be considered derivatives and that quite often, the -(i)acija derivatives form pairs of derivative synonyms with the -imas(is) verb abstracts. The meanings of nouns, and especially the examples of usage found in the corpora, have shown that in many cases, common root derivatives with -(i)acija and -imas(is) are partial synonyms: they have semantic and valency differences that are neutralized only in certain word combinations; hence, it is impossible to talk about the possibilities of substitution without restrictions. Sometimes the members of pairs of derivative synonyms differ stylistically (for example, the -(i)acija derivatives are terms); often, the frequency of use of common root derivatives also differs. It is believed that in the sources of the lexicography of the current Lithuanian language, some used derivatives or their new meanings should appear (for example, komunikavimas ‘communication’, mutavimas ‘mutation’, vulgarizavimas ‘vulgarization’ and their base verbs).

Greek μάρτυς ‘witness’, σειρά ‘rope’ and PIE *ter(H)- ‘to bind’

The paper shows that the thematic form μάρτυρος in Homer is metrically conditioned. The only old form is the athematic μάρτυς < μάρτυρς. This leads to a reexamination of Frisk’s explanation for μάρτυς, which is only partially correct. The word probably goes back to *(s)mer- ‘to have in mind, to remember’, as assumed by Frisk, but it is a compound, not a derivative. The paper argues that the second member of the compound is a root noun of *ter(H)- ‘to bind’, a root found in Greek σειρά ‘rope’ and σορός ‘funerary urn’, and otherwise attested only in Baltic and Slavic. The witness is the ‘memory-binding’ one, which agrees with the older meaning of μάρτυς in Homer and that of its denominative μαρτύρομαι.

Language Processing in Individuals with Non-fluent Aphasia: Evidence from Root and Synthetic Compound Nouns

Background: Neurolinguists are increasingly inclined to study the language behavior of patients with aphasia (PWAs) to discover more about the relationship between the brain and language. Objectives: This study investigated the production of synthetic and root compound nouns in the PWAs to discover how these lexemes were processed. Methods: Using a confrontation naming task, four PWAs (two patients with Broca aphasia and two patients with transcortical motor aphasia) named 80 random black and white drawings of simple and compound nouns. They also repeated the nouns through an auditory repetition task. Compound nouns were of two root and synthetic types. Root nouns belonged to the noun-noun, and synthetic compounds belonged to the noun-verb category. Results: There was a significant difference between the affected components in naming and repetition of compound nouns. Moreover, there was a significant difference between naming and repetition of simple and compound nouns. There was no significant difference between naming and repetition of root and synthetic nouns. Conclusions: PWAs process compound nouns through the dual-route model. They cannot retrieve the phonological forms of compound nouns, but they retain their knowledge of word-formation, indicating the modularity of linguistic ability. Morphological structure plays a role in word processing.

KARAÇAY-MALKAR TÜRKÇESİNDE İSİMDEN İSİM YAPIM EKLERİNİN GELİŞİMİ - I

A considerable amount of the Turkish language vocabulary is composed of derived words. Affixes forming nouns from nouns have an important function in word derivation. These aforementioned affixes, which don’t have any meaning on their own, become meaningful when they attach themselves to noun roots or stems. In other words, the primary task of these affixes is to form new and lasting noun words by attaching themselves to the noun roots or stems of noun which had become one derived from a verb. These new words, from the standpoint of the meanings they have, also show similarities with the meanings of the roots and stems to which they are attached since they are formed via derivational affixes to those roots or stems. The field of usage of these affixes is quite large and they usually express abstract and concrete notions such as time, space, profession, community, belonging. From this theoretical information forth, derivational affixes used to derive nouns from nouns in Karachay-Balkar Turkish, which is in north-west (Kipchak) Turkish dialect group, are identified and classified in alphabetical order. Subsequently the functions of each of these aforementioned affixes and the relationship of the new meanings they derived to the roots and stems they are attached to are shown by giving examples. In addition, development of these aforementioned affixes in Karachay-Balkar Turkish are exhibited in comparison with Orkhon, Old Uyghur, Karakhanid, Khorezm, Kipchak and Chagatai periods of Turkish language.

Reduced forms in the nominal morphology of the Lindisfarne Gospel Gloss. A case of accusative/dative syncretism?

Abstract One of the most characteristic features of the grammar of the Lindisfarne Gospel gloss is the absence of the etymological -e inflection in the dative singular in the paradigm of the strong masculine and neuter declension (a-stems). Ross (1960: 38) already noted that endingless forms of the nominative/accusative cases were quite frequent in contexts where a dative singular in -e would be expected, to the extent that he labeled the forms in -e ‘rudimentary dative.’ The aim of this article is to assess to what extent the dative singular is still found as a separate case in the paradigms of the masculine and neuter a-stems and root nouns. To this end a quantitative/statistical analysis of nouns belonging to these classes has been carried out in contexts where the Latin lemma is either accusative or dative. We have tried to determine whether variables such as syntactic context, noun class, and frequency condition the presence or absence of the -e inflection, and whether the distribution of the inflected and uninflected forms is different in the various demarcations that have been identified in the gloss. The data have been retrieved using the Dictionary of Old English Corpus. All tokens have been checked against the facsimile edition and the digitised manuscript in order to detect possible errors.

&lt;span&gt;Baltic &lt;em&gt;ē‑&lt;/em&gt;stems revisited&lt;/span&gt;

Balto-Slavic ē‑stems represent Proto-Indo-European root nouns, in particular *dheH1‑, and H1‑stems, especially proterodynamic iH1‑stems denoting deverbal abstracts, as well as Proto-Balto-Slavic ē‑extensions of root nouns and hysterodynamic iH2‑stems. In Latin we similarly find PIE root nouns and H1‑stems, especially proterodynamic iH1‑stems denoting deverbal abstracts, and hysterodynamic iH2‑stems denoting denominal abstracts and collectives.

Root nouns in Elfdalian: Categorisation and etymology

AbstractElsewhere I have proposed a set of rules according to which we may categorise Germanic root nouns into three chronological layers. In this article, I present a synchronic classification of all of the Elfdalian actual and potential root-noun continuants as well as their etymologies and derivational histories in light of this proposal and in order to reveal (i) some interesting aspects of the general processes involved in shifts of inflectional class, and (ii) whether or not some of these processes in Elfdalian when compared to other Nordic varieties may shed light on the cladistical status of Elfdalian within North Germanic. The analysis shows that, while those Elfdalian root-noun continuants whose ancestral forms belong to layers I, IIa and IIb generally remain stable and keep their appurtenance to the root-noun inflectional class, some of the (non-)root-noun continuants actually and potentially belonging to layer III deserve additional attention with regard to this twofold aim.

Semantic Unilocality

Abstract If a language regularly places a particular closed class in syntactic construction with an open class—for example, nominal affixes with noun roots, or satellites with verbs—any conceptual category expressed by the closed class tends not to be expressed by the open class. This proposed tendency is here called “semantic unilocality”. Cognitively, semantic unilocality in language may arise from several more general tendencies, including one to avoid redundancy and one to segregate the representation of different conceptual categories. Both of these may in turn arise from a still more general tendency toward communicative efficiency. Historically, the rise, extended presence, decline, or extended absence of a closed class that expresses a particular conceptual category may foster certain diachronic processes in a syntactically associated open class. These processes include leaching, culling, shift, filtering, and abstention.

Tone lowering in nominal compounds of Copala Triqui

This paper examines the distribution of tone lowering in the nominal compounds of Copala Triqui (Otomanguean). We consider two types of compounds: fused compounds and unfused compounds, which differ with respect to their prosodic complexity. For both types of compounds, the second root noun lowers in some examples, while it maintains its lexically specified tone in others. In this paper, we consider the advantages and disadvantages of a lexical as compared to a structural approach to tone lowering. More specifically, tonal overlay may belong to either a categorical head or a specific syntactic configuration, as in McPherson (2014)’s description of tone overlay in the Dogon language family

On the Etymology of the Proto-Slavic *tělo “body”

The author puts forward a new hypothesis on the origin of the Proto-Slavic word *tělo “body”, which, to date, does not have a commonly accepted etymology. The researcher draws a connection with the verb *tьlěti “putrefy”. The word *trupъ “corpse; torso”, derived from the verb *trup- “decay”, is presented as a semantic parallel. The meaning “torso” in this case has most likely developed from “corpse”. Thus, it is believed that *tělo might have originally meant a dead, putrefying body. The author rejects a supposition about a connection between *tьlěti and *tьlo “floor, foundation”, which can be found in several studies, and goes back to a hypothesis, according to which *tьlěti is related to the Lithuanian verbs tìlti “go silent, quieten” and tylė́ti “keep silent”. It is suggested that *tьlěti with its Baltic cognates originated from the root verb *tl̥-, from which *-ē-durative forms were formed. The latter replaced the original root variant over time. The disappearance of syllabic liquids changed the structure of ablaut in roots similar to *tl̥-: the alternation type CeR / CoR / CR̥ was changed to CeR / CoR / CiR ~ CuR. As a result, these roots were included in the ablative schemes typical of the roots with the old *i and the alternation CiC- // *Cei̯C- // *Coi̯C-. As a particular example, the word *děra “hole” was formed form *derti (*dьrǫ) / *dьrati (*derǫ) “to tear”. The vocalism of the root of *tělo is seen as a result of a similar secondary ablaut. Additionally, the author looks at the possible derivation of *tělo from the old root noun with its characteristic long vocalism, which is believed to be less probable.

Ghazal : [inline-graphic 01i], and: Calligraphies XI, and: Makdisi Street Calligraphies

Ghazal : [inline-graphic 01i], and: Calligraphies XI, and: Makdisi Street Calligraphies Marilyn Hacker (bio) Ghazal : Halab, Qamishli, Isdoud, for Ovid, once Rome—in the heartof exile, one name remains home in the heart. There are some stones and a small pile of ash in the desert.There is the silence beneath a magnificent dome in the heart. I look out at a three-quarter moon after three weeks’ confinementthat daily inflames a desire to roam in the heart. Not every old lady—but some—looking frail in the marketor too stout on the bus, has an insolent môme in the heart. The bad gene for cancer I probably got from my father.My blood pressure rises from which chromosome in the heart? Such palpitations, and all of them augur departure,throbbing beneath the unmarked aerodrome in the heart. What’s the djinn in my mind makes me want what I shouldn’t?I created that golem, invited that gnome in the heart. Silenced, the call to , the first bell of matins,in my cloister still start up the same metronome in the heart. your faces look out on all four chambers.If I am not honest with you, there’s no poem in the heart. [End Page 36] Calligraphies XI Fayza said to me“During the day, I’m happy,lonely when it’s dark.” She’s fifty-something, in atiny walk-up in Belleville, and made us kebbewith pomegranate syrup,hummus and fattouch. “When night falls, I’m alone withsolitude.” Claire, ninety-three. * Nine months of illness,a year away from Beirut,of timor mortis at six on summer morningsawake in sweat-crumpled sheets. Now with departure,a duffel bag of troubleon your mind again, you sort out the books and clothes,throw the unused pills away. [End Page 37] *Used clothes and used books,past years packed in shopping bagsfor charity shops to diminish the clutter,to make room for the clutter of too many booksjust bought, and clothes from the soldesas if you had space, as if your years could expandinto numberless chapters. * Meaningless numbers,a birth year, death year, an age,the months of mourning. Her engravings on the wall,her book, and hers, near my bed. There is nothing inthe buzz of ginger or wineto pry tomorrow out of the sunlight’s hollowone-sided conversation. * Conversation ina room, the rain, on a pathgoing anywhere [End Page 38] and nowhere, and where would yourather be? Gnarled apple trees, hydrangea bushesmoon-green in late afternoon,an old man with keys to his allotment gardenand a bag of lettuces. * Dropped the laundry bagoff where they remember mefrom a year ago. Squeezing my pomegranatejuice, the portly grizzled man asked: Don’t we know you?Yes, I was here last spring andtwo years before that. Women, the same ones or not,are begging on Hamra Street. * Hamra Street perfume:sizzling man’ouche, red diesel,late-day narguilehs. In one café two beardedmen my age write in notebooks. I’m not at home, I’mnot homesick, not sure of myfooting and language. [End Page 39] I could learn Spanish in French.Learn ‘amiyeh in fus’ha? * If I order itin fus’ha, the waitress smiles,brings my glass of wine, understanding how much Ientirely don’t understand. So much forgottenof noun roots, branches of verbsI scratched in notebooks for weekly hours when nothingor everything could go wrong. * “Old’s” the wrong gender,like being the only girlon a team of boys, wrong race; the one black orbrown student in a white class, entirely aloneif there’s a problem and you’rein over your head or too reticent to askin your old lady wolf suit. * [End Page 40] Wolf of solitude,oud in late October wind,wolf words at wolf-hour. Is there a revolutionnot routed or turned riot? Too tired or too late,in always the wrong language,but I’d howl in it intuiting what he meant,not repeating what she...

Cretan µωλεῖν ‘Contend, Bring an Action to Court’

Abstract It is argued that Cretan µωλεῖν ‘contend, bring an action to court’ may be derived from PIE *melh3- ‘to go, walk’, attested also in Gk. prs. βλώσκω, aor. ἔµολον, reflecting the frequent usage of motion verbs in legal contexts meaning ‘file a lawsuit’. The derivational basis of µωλέω may have been a thematized root noun *mṓlh3-s ‘going (to court)’ or a vr̥ddhi-formation based on *µολός ‘going’.

Phonological constraints on morphology: Evidence from Old English nominal inflection

AbstractStudying the complex interaction between phonological and morphological developments involved in the extensive reorganisation of nominal inflection in early English, we focus, primarily, on new inflectional endings that emerged by analogy in etymologically suffix-less paradigm forms ofr-stems and root nouns. We argue that the analogical changes were essentially reactive to phonological developments, and to a large extent predictable in statistical terms. Investigating correlations in corpus data, we identify the factors that affected the probability that new analogical endings were adopted. The predictors of the directions of analogical change that we show to be robust include the syllable structure of the root, the salience of inherited and analogical inflectional markers, as well as their absolute and relative frequencies.

Assessment and final reports in foreign language lessons

Psycholinguists are interested in how words are stored in human memory. The question as to whether words are stored as single root words or whether they are stored along with the affixes still remains a controversial issue. Aitchison (1987) believes that each word has a separate entry. Mackay (1978) and Taft (1981) hold that words are made of constituent morphemes. When we listen, we decompose the morphemes and when we speak, we combine them to make multimorphemic words. The decomposition view claims that only the root is stored in memory. To test this claim, a group of 50 intermediate level students at the preparatory department of a state university situated on the western coast of Turkey were selected. They were taught 10 pseudo root nouns and verbs and 10 psuedo complex nouns and verbs. To see how the morphological complexity affected lexical access and which type of words were better remembered, they were tested on these words. Then the same group was given 10 root and 10 complex words in their mother tongue and their answer times were compared. Students recalled the root words more easily and accurately.The results shed light on the validity of the decomposition theory, showcasing we remember the words in roots better.

Indo-European *pr- and *pr̥h₂- ‘before, in front of’

Abstract All Indo-European languages present local adverbs and other derivatives from a basic root *per-, e.g. Gk. πρό, πρότι, περί, παρά, πάρος, πρίν, πρῶτος/πρᾶτος, etc. It is generally agreed that the data point to two root variants, *pr-and *pr̥h₂-, but the origin of the extra *‑h₂‑has never been satisfactorily explained. In this article it is argued that the variation *pr-~ *pr̥h₂-is exclusively found in local adverbs from an archaic root noun *per-/*pr-and that it originated in false segmentation of the PIE (Indo-Hittite) directive case *pr̥‑h₂á(viz.its locativization *pr̥‑h₂ái). The spread of *pr̥h₂-at the expense of *pr-took place almost entirely in dialectal Indo-European.