Roman Conquest Research Articles

Commentaria archaeologica et historica (III). Chronology of the Dacian Silver Hoards

These comments stem from the recent publication of a number of studies regarding the silver artefacts of pre-Roman Dacia, with important implications for the relative and absolute chronology of the late La Tène period in the region in question, and also for some cultural and historical transformations that happened in the same area. Some of the conclusions presented in these studies are insufficiently supported by arguments. Their publication requires a detailed analysis, which is meant to clarify a number of controversial aspects. For example, D. Spânu has recently divided the evolution of the Dacian silver hoards into two phases dated to the La Tène D2a and D2b (the period between ca. 75 – 65 BC and the Augustan age). To support this chronology, he chose to ignore a series of hoards, or only certain artefacts from other hoards, which did not fit into the suggested model. These efforts to push the chronology of the Dacian silver hoards within a particular time frame stem from his aim to use these discoveries as arguments for a series of a priori historical interpretations for which archaeological evidence is scant. This includes the idea that the local silver ornaments were all made exclusively of melted Mediterranean coins which supposedly reached pre-Roman Dacia massively only after the defeating of Mithridates VI Eupator and the fall of the Kingdom of Pontus. However, the analysis of the silver jewellery from pre-Roman Dacia is demonstrating that the artefacts in question were made using both locally-sourced silver and melted Mediterranean coins. Chronologically, these hoards can be divided into three phases: first group dated to the La Tène D1, 150/125 – 75/50 BC; second group belongs to the La Tène D2, 75/50 – 30/25 BC; third group dated to the Augustan – Tiberian period, 30/25 BC – AD 25/30. It can be therefore concluded that the scenario proposed by D. Spânu for the chronology of the end of the Late Iron Age in the lower Danube region and Transylvania, based on an erroneous dating of the silver hoards, is not credible. This kind of analysis requires the incorporation of different categories of archaeological evidence belonging to the last three centuries before the Roman conquest. Their contextual interpretation could provide a more reliable and detailed chronology of the evolution of the communities from each of the two territories in question. Lastly, this evolution was not uniformly equal across wide areas, as suggested by the typo-chronological tables and schemes drawn in the office by some researchers, since each community had its own history and evolution governed by a multitude of different social, economic, demographic or ecological factors.

The Northwestern Iberian Mountains: Resilient Landscapes until the Augustan Conquest, 29–19 B.C.

ABSTRACT The Iberian Peninsula is an area of the Western Mediterranean among the most sensitive to climatic and anthropogenic change. It has formed the centre-piece of numerous palaeoenvironmental studies of mountain and valleys, covering different chronologies and historical periods. These studies, however, include no palaeoenvironmental background to the Roman military conquests of the late third to the late first centuries B.C. This paper presents palynological evidence from two Roman military camps, A Recacha and A Granda das Xarras, in the mountains of Northwest Iberia. The main results reflect anthropic activities that shaped the landscape since at least the end of the third millennium B.C., with the presence of montane heaths and deciduous forests. During the first millennium B.C., a modest increase in anthropic activity was detected, possibly due to seasonal grazing. Throughout the Roman conquest, slightly increased signs of anthropogenic activity on the local landscape are detected, leaving a landscape which has changed little throughout the two thousand years that have since passed.

New trajectories or accelerating change? Zooarchaeological evidence for Roman transformation of animal husbandry in Northern Italy

Throughout the Western provinces of the Roman Empire, greater economic and political connectivity had a major impact on agricultural production, which grew in scale and specialisation after integration with the Roman state. However, uniquely in Western Europe, farming strategies in Italy began to evolve centuries before the Roman conquest, and many ‘Roman’ patterns associated with livestock size and the relative proportions of different taxa first emerged during the early and middle centuries of the first millennium BC. These changes imply a significant reorganisation of production strategies well before Roman hegemony, even in relatively marginal areas of Italy. Zooarchaeological studies have documented further significant changes to livestock production in Roman times, but the relationship between these developments and earlier trends remains unclear. Through analysis of zooarchaeological data for species representation and livestock biometry from lowland northern Italy (Po–Friulian Plain), this study investigates animal exploitation between the Bronze Age and Late Antiquity in order to characterise the influence of Roman political and economic organisation on animal husbandry. Results demonstrated subregional variation in species representation, and different trajectories in the biometric evolution of cattle, sheep and goats, compared to pigs. Initial steps established in the Iron Age towards a more complex and dynamic livestock economy were accelerated and further reconfigured in Roman times, facilitated by Roman economic organisation and the specialised and large-scale production systems within it. Zooarchaeological trends continued to progress over the Roman period, until further changes at the very end of the chronology considered here—around the sixth century AD—suggest another wave of change.

Concluding thoughts

This conclusion unites the wide range of issues discussed in this dossier regarding the relationships between Rome’s representatives and the Italian peoples, and between the various Italian peoples, before and during the Roman conquest. There were many occasions for interaction between individuals from different towns and ethnic groups, for example in trade, but also in warfare. This contributed to a high level of mobility throughout the peninsula. At the same time, a growing cultural koine manifested itself on many different levels, from institutions such as magistratures to language change and cultural exchange between different peoples; although a gradual feeling of a common Italian identity appeared relatively late, in the second century. Furthermore, the conclusion investigates how Rome and the Italian peoples gained reliable information about each other and the far-flung regions of Italy.

The Roman Conquest of Italy in Recent Historiography

The Roman Conquest of Italy in Recent Historiography

Migracje ludności podczas rzymskiego podboju Galii w latach 58–51 przed Chr. Próba ujęcia historyczno-antropologicznego

Migrations during the Roman conquest of Gaul in 58–51 BC: A historical and anthropological approach Caesar’s Commentarii de bello Gallico are a unique Roman source containing information on barbarian migrations in the 1st century BC. Despite numerous studies dedicated to Caesar’s narrative style, there still is a lack of reflection on the possible causes of migrations and the attitude of wan­dering barbarians to the Roman rule. Contemporary scholars have a tendency to see barbarians as Rome’s ‘eternal’ enemies, and often assume that they ‘must’ have manifested aggressive attitudes. By incorporating anthropological reflection and adopting the ‘other’s’ perspective, it is possible to better understand mechanisms prompting barbarians to look for a new homeland. No less of an important aspect is the reconstruction of Caesar’s way of presenting the phenomenon of migration, which allows us to explain why he treated it as hostile in every case.

GIS Analysis and Spatial Networking Patterns in Upland Ancient Warfare: The Roman Conquest of Dacia

Generally seen as natural peripheries, upland landscapes present particular challenges both in terms of living, and of recording past human activity within. LiDAR (light detection and ranging) technology has now brought considerable improvement in our ability to record and map surviving archaeological features, but not necessarily increased our appreciation of local agency. Though the iconic landscape around the Iron Age Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa Regia (Romania) and its Roman conquest have long caught the attention of specialists and the wider public, both previous research and more recent results from an airborne LiDAR survey leave considerable gaps in our understanding of networking potential across this challenging landscape. Based on LiDAR and satellite-generated high- and mid-resolution topographic data, our paper employs an innovative combination of GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis tools to examine the spatial relationships between Roman military bases, Dacian targets, and the wider landscape as an integral part of a wider interdisciplinary archaeological research. This helped us formulate and test spatial and historical hypotheses, according to which all known and potential Roman military bases in the study area functioned as part of a system where each contributed individual advantages in securing their domination across the landscape. Our research highlighted the advantages and challenges for Comărnicelu as one of the key Roman logistical nodes, and for the attackers at Şesului and Muncelu working in tandem to besiege and subdue Sarmizegetusa Regia. Our study raises doubts with respect of the fall and destruction of the hillfort at Vârfu lui Hulpe as a result of a Roman siege, making space for alternative political narratives. Ultimately, our findings help build a better understanding of this iconic world heritage landscape and its Roman conquest.

The treatise on the history of spanish by B. de Aldrete (1606) as the first textbook of romance philology

The paper analyses the role of B. de Aldrete’s treatise “Del Origen y principio de la lengua castellana o romance que oi se usa en España” (1606) in the development of Romance philology. The XVII-century author writes about the most important aspects of internal and external history of Spanish, such as: pre-Romance Spain and substratum languages; Roman conquest and romanization; Hispanic Latin; German conquests of Spain; Arabic conquest and the Reconquista; formation of kingdoms in the north and state-building processes; sociolinguistic situation in Spain; the role of Spanish in the New World; changes from Latin to Spanish in phonetics and morphology; sources of Spanish lexis; early written texts; territorial, social, functional variation of Spanish. Apart from the aspects of Spanish philology, B. de Aldrete pays attention to the formation and functioning of Pyrenean languages: Catalan, Galician, and Portuguese. However, B. de Aldrete does not limit himself to examining Ibero-Romance languages. Many aspects of the history of Spanish are shown against a wider, Romance background, bearing in mind the earlier tradition (the Antiquity, in the first place). He also confronts Spanish with other Romance languages and Latin. The analysis of the first treatise on the history of Spanish makes one reconsider B. de Aldrete’s contribution to the development of language description models and the bases of Romance philology. The treatise sets up a model of Romance philology as a full-fledged philological discipline.

Kolapijani / Colapiani

After conquering the Iapodean center Metulum in 35 BC, Octavian (soon to be Emperor Augustus) set forth towards Segesta with his legions “through the land of the Paeonians not yet conquered by the Romans” (App. Illyr. IV, 22). Appian’s Paeonians were actually the Pannonians, and this paper aims to show that this community was also known as the Colapiani. The land of the Pannonians was located between Octavian’s two main strategic goals (Metulum and Segesta) and it’s reasonable to assume that Octavian wanted to put this land under Roman control as well. According to Appian, Octavian first hoped for a peaceful surrender, but the land of the Pannonians, in the end, had to be conquered by means of armed conflict. The territory of the Pannonians (Appian’s Paeonians) is outlined by ancient written sources and yet insufficient archaeological explorations. Octavian’s legions could have reached Segesta from Metulum following two directions: the valleys of the Mrežnica and Kupa rivers (northern direction 125 km long) or the valley of the Glina river (eastern direction 100 km long). This other direction is more probable because it’s shorter and suitable for army march. The rivers Mrežnica, Korana, and Glina belong to the basin of the Kupa river which revealed evidence of the Colapiani whose name literally means “those who live by the Kupa river.” The majority of historical resources that directly or indirectly mention Octavian’s military campaign in 35 BC (Tibullus, Ovid, Livy, Strabo) are contemporaries with the war and reflect a contemporary perception of the ethnic situation in the Pannonian Interfluve, an area between the Drava and Sava rivers. Florus and Appian are about 150 years younger, but the first authored the summary of Livy’s History, whereas the latter mostly rewrote from Octavian’s memoirs. All of these sources mention the Pannonians and the Segestani, the inhabitants of the Pannonian center of Segesta. Cassius Dio also mentions the Pannonians, but from the perspective of his own time (2nd/3rd century) when that term stands for “the inhabitants of the Roman province of Pannonia.” Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy are the only ones mentioning the Colapiani in the context of the already organized Roman province. The Colapiani were also mentioned on several Roman inscriptions in an entirely Roman context (as members of Roman auxiliary units). This paper aims to establish whether the Pannonian name referred to the entire Interfluve ever since the first known mention of the Pannonians by Polybius in the 2nd century BC (Polyb. frg. 64) or it extended from the western part after Octavian’s conquest. The author believes that the name Colapiani, attested in an entirely Roman context (members of one of civitates peregrinae), was locally used even before the Roman conquest and that was taken over by Rome from the indigenous population, and author’s question is how to interpret the relationship between the Pannonians and the Colapiani. One possibility is that the Pannonians mentioned by historical sources refers to some sort of military and political alliance in the Interfluve, and that the Colapiani (probably the leading community in the western part of the Interfluve) are one of these communities. It is possible that this community was named Pannonians, but that the name Colapiani was descriptive in the already mentioned context – “those by the Kupa river.”

El armamento de época iberorromana de Libisosa (Lezuza, Albacete). Un conjunto excepcional

Las excavaciones que se vienen desarrollando en la ciudad de Libisosa (Lezuza, Albacete) han proporcionado —y siguen haciéndolo— un gran número de armas datables sobre todo en dos fases concretas: el periodo de estabilización de la conquista romana en el tercer cuarto del s. II a. C. y el periodo sertoriano, hacia el año 75 a. C. Este conjunto es muy notable por su número, la buena calidad de conservación, la variedad tipológica (ofensivas y defensivas de diversos tipos, arreos de caballo), y su preciso contexto arqueológico urbano. Para el periodo que conocemos como “baja época ibérica”, que desde la otra perspectiva corresponde al periodo romano republicano en Hispania, el lote de armas de Lezuza es uno de los más completos e importantes de la península ibérica, por su relevancia y calidad al nivel de los de Numancia, Caminreal u Osuna.

Particularities of the Cultural Tourism in Zalău in the Context of the European Heritage: The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum

"Particularities of the Cultural Tourism in Zalău in the Context of the European Heritage: the Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum. Covering an area of 3,850 square kms, the county of Sălaj lies in the north-western part of Romania, as a passage between the Western and Eastern Carpathians. The main settlement of Sălaj is the city of Zalău, lying at the heart of the county, along Zalău valley, near the Northern Meseş Mountains. Evidence of the Dacian culture and civilization can be found all over the county. The stronghold was well known in antiquity as Dacidava, a central place for the gatherings of Dacian tribes living in the region, known today as Sălaj. Here 14 treasures of Dacian silver coins and jewels were found, which may explain the fact that Sălaj was one of the towns that laid on the ancient road of salt whereon salt used to be traded from Transylvania to Central Europe. Another important Dacian settlement would be Moigrad (Porolissum), on the heights of Măgura Moigradului, mentioned by Ptolemeu in his „Geographia”. After the Roman conquest and the colonization of Dacia as a Roman province, Roman experts in military strategy transfomed the Meseş Mountains into the north-eastern border of the Roman Empire. This „limes” separated the territories of the Roman province Dacia from the unoccupied area which belonged to the free Dacians. The military structure of Porolissum, the capital of the province „Dacia Porolissensis”, acquired the rank of „municipium”, by an order of the Emperor Septimius Severus. Ruins of the Porolissum town, together with Roman fortifications near the passage Poarta Meseşului stretch to an area of about 200 hectares. In Porolissum, archaeological discoveries brought to light two large stone-built Roman „castrum”, one amphitheatre, several temples, civilian constructions and Roman roads. Within the study there were both open-response questionnaires, when the subject was free to answer as he saw fit, and closed-response questionnaires, in which the subject had several possible answers from which he could choose the response considered convenient. The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum recovers a part of the shared historical past within a geographical space where the European community now functions. Through impeccable organization and administration, this part made possibile the development of the greatest empire in ancient times. Through The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum, the Zalău City Hall proposes to its inhabitants and tourists a vast event with an educative-cultural dimension. We believe that this sort of manifestation may counteract the promotion tendencies of the underground culture. We wish for The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum to pleasantly provide to the public history moments, traditions, culture and specific costumes. The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum is an event of our identity that reconfirms our values and space in Europe. At the European Union’s construction a few fundamental facts contributed: shared geography and history, the Greek culture, the Christianity and the Roman legacy. The Roman culture and civilization are marks of the European identity, which define the present European citizen’s consciousness. Keywords: The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum, Cultural tourism, Global values, European Heritage."

The dark side of the Empire: Roman expansionism between object agency and predatory regime

This debate piece offers a critique of some recent ‘new materialist’ approaches and their application to Roman expansionism, particularly those positing that the study of ‘Romanisation’ should be about ‘understanding objects in motion’—a perspective that carries important political and ethical implications. Here, the authors introduce the alternative notion of a ‘predatory’ political economy for conceptualising Late Republican and Early Imperial Rome. The aim is to illuminate the darker sides of Roman expansionism in order to produce more balanced and inclusive accounts. Two cases studies—the archaeology of the Roman conquest and of rural communities—illustrate the potential of such a perspective.

Römische Münzen Und Der Frührömische Geldumlauf Bei Den Eraviskern

Coins unearthed in the Eraviscus settlement of Lágymányos provide new data to the beginning of Roman coin circulation in Pannonia. Eravisci are the only Celtic tribe that released coins following the Roman standard at the dawning of the Roman conquest of the area. Exact dating and purpose of this coinage are debated up until now since Celtic denarii do not appear on Celtic settlements, so it seems they played no roles in local coin usage. Meanwhile, Roman bronze coins released in the name of Augustus occur in indigenous settlements. The presence of these Roman bronze coins in the indigenous population in the times of the Iulio-Claudian dynasty prove the existence of relations between the military appearing in the area at that time and the local population.

‘Una piccola Italia.’ L’Argentina e il lavoro degli Italiani: breve storia di un tema che partì socialista e arrivò fascista

ABSTRACT This essay analyses the development of a crucial idea: the concept of human work in Italian culture and literature during the final decades of the Nineteen Century and the first four decades of the Twentieth. This time frame, that sees the freshly unified Italy going through crisis but also economic and industrial development, is the period in which Socialism becomes relevant and influences writers and thinkers. And so does the concept of human work that is depicted by many writers dealing with the massive Italian emigration, particularly to Argentina, as a fundamental right of man, a means to advance in life and society. Many works by Edmondo De Amicis, a very popular and loved writer of that time, represent people struggling and succeeding in migrating and creating wealth and comfortable living conditions at home and abroad through a positive work ethic. But with the development of the new century and the increasing prevalence of Nationalism as well as the experience of Colonialism, the idea of migration and working abroad assumes overtones of conquest and domination: in the case of the fascist author Comunardo Braccialarghe, this shift is evident as he celebrates Italian participation in Argentine society as something akin to a Roman conquest and a way to make the Italian Kingdom powerful and dominant beyond its national borders.

La ciudad ibérica de Masies de Sant Miquel (Banyeres del Penedès, Tarragona) entre los siglos VII-III a. C. Resultados de una investigación con métodos no invasivos

Se presentan los resultados históricos derivados de la primera fase de la investigación sobre este importante yacimiento, realizada exclusivamente a partir de métodos no invasivos. Los datos recuperados a partir de la prospección pedestre y geofísica han permitido verificar la condición urbana del asentamiento, atestiguada tanto por sus dimensiones como por su complejidad estructural y la naturaleza de los materiales muebles recuperados, que sugieren actividades económicas especializadas y la coexistencia de distintos sectores sociales. La desaparición del asentamiento en torno a 200 a. C. confirma el profundo impacto de la conquista romana en los patrones de poblamiento del mundo ibérico septentrional.

Un asentamiento de época púnica en la campiña costera de la Bahía de Cádiz. Estructuras, fases de uso y contextos materiales de Puerto-19

Entre los años 1996-1997 diversas actuaciones de urgencia dieron como resultado la excavación de los principales componentes de un saladero púnico de pescado situado en la zona de Pinar Hondo de la localidad gaditana de El Puerto de Santa María. Los resultados de estas intervenciones fueron posteriormente dados a conocer de forma preliminar, proporcionando una visión parcial de las características de las estructuras y materiales de Puerto-19. El estudio de los materiales recuperados en dichas excavaciones durante los años 2008-2010 ha permitido revisar estas primeras propuestas y definir una nueva secuencia de evolución del asentamiento, además de caracterizar con más detalle los componentes materiales de sus diversas fases de vida. A lo largo de tres fases principales, el enclave evolucionó desde la segunda mitad del siglo VI hasta las últimas décadas del III a. C. desde un saladero de pescado (Edificio A) hasta una construcción probablemente multifuncional (Edificio B), seguramente abandonada antes de la conquista romana de la zona en relación con la II Guerra Púnica.

Conflict on the Northern Front: Archaeological Perspectives on the Spanish Civil War at Monte Bernorio, Palencia, Spain

The archaeology of the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) has experienced an important development over the last two decades. Several field projects have studied aspects such as mass graves, forced labor camps, and battlefields. In this paper, we present a case study from the so-called “Northern Front” (Frente Norte). The impressive mountain of Monte Bernorio, situated at the foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains, controls one of the main communication routes between the central Spanish plateau (Meseta) and the Cantabrian Sea. Due to this strategic position, the site has played an important military role during two episodes of war separated by nearly 2,000 years: the Roman conquest of northern Iberia under Emperor Augustus in the 20s BCE, and the Spanish Civil War in the years 1936-37. The ongoing archaeological excavations and surveys are uncovering abundant remains of trenches, battering positions, barracks, and munitions belonging to the Civil War period, when Bernorio was a highly disputed position in the confrontation between “Republicans” and “Nationalists.” Adopting an interdisciplinary approach, this paper combines archaeological evidence, oral history, and written documents that shed light on one of the main episodes of Franco’s conquest of northern Spain.

Recensione: GIOVANNI MARGINESU, Il costo del Partenone. Appalti e affari dell’arte greca, Salerno Editrice, 2020

The essay of Giovanni Marginesu is a brand-new research on the economy of the ancient Greece. The author blends the history of art, the newest economic studies, the study on the inscriptions and the ancient writers. The book summarizes the history of ancient art, from the Archaic age to the fall of the Roman Empire. The focus is on Athens. The construction of the Acropolis in the age of Pericles is exemplary and well-documented. The costs and the quotations of the erga of the sacred hill (Parthenon, Parthenos and Propylaia) are not bare data and numbers. Actually, the survey includes the backstage of the relations between the patrons and the artists; the relevance of the art market in the ancient world; the use of sacred and civic monies in the architectonical complexes, statues and paintings; the aftermath of the Roman conquest of Greece on the meaning and the value of the masterpieces.

El Coll del Moro (Gandesa, Tarragona) y su contexto territorial: formación y desarrollo de un asentamiento urbano protohistórico

Los trabajos realizados entre 2014 y 2019 en este im­portante núcleo, situado estratégicamente entre las cuencas de los ríos Ebro y Matarraña, han combinado la excavación en extensión, la prospección intensiva del asentamiento y de su entorno inmediato, los análisis interdisciplinares y la re­visión de las intervenciones anteriores. Los resultados per­miten reinterpretar la evolución del asentamiento entre el Primer Hierro y el Alto Imperio. Su extensión inicial debió de ser reducida, con una función limitada al control del te­rritorio y ejercida desde una gran torre, mientras que en el siglo III a. C. alcanzó su máxima extensión (3 ha) y se eri­gió una gran mansión aristocrática. Esta evolución refleja el proceso de estratificación y urbanización de la sociedad ibé­rica de la zona, truncado por la conquista romana. En época romano-republicana se construyó un edificio fortificado que recuperó la función de punto de control, para pasar a ser ocupado esporádicamente en el Alto Imperio.

Roman Tunisian dietary patterns as a feature ofRomanitas: An archaeozoological approach

AbstractIt has been said that the Roman Empire was one of the greatest empires of antiquity. At its height, it spanned the entire Mediterranean basin, from the Iberian Peninsula to the Near East, each territory contributing with its customs and specificities. In this melting pot, dietary preferences were modified, diversified and, sometimes, replaced. With this paper, we aim to study Roman dietary patterns in Tunisia, an area that has been the object of little academic scrutiny and for which only a few studies are available. We investigate this topic with an archaeozoological approach. The relative frequency of taxa, body part representation and kill‐off patterns of faunal remains from 16 pre‐Roman and Roman Tunisian sites shows that, in Tunisia, dietary patterns were modified as a result of the Roman conquest.