Tire Rolling Research Articles

Pathway to domestic natural rubber production: a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of the first guayule automobile tire manufactured in the United States

Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) is a perennial shrub that can be cultivated in the Southwestern US. It produces natural rubber that could be a viable substitute for Hevea natural rubber and synthetic rubbers currently used in tires. Drivers for producing domestic guayule rubber include fluctuations in price and availability of imported Hevea rubber. A tire was manufactured in 2017 where guayule rubber was substituted for all of the Hevea and synthetic rubber in the conventional tire. Life cycle assessment (LCA) from cradle to grave was used to evaluate the environmental and energy sustainability of the guayule tire, and these metrics were benchmarked against those of the conventional tire (CT). Functional units of 1 kg natural rubber for agricultural processes, as well as 1 tire for the cradle-to-grave study were considered. Life cycle inventory (LCI) data were collected directly from primary sources, including guayule field experiments, a rubber-processing company, and a major tire manufacturer. Scenario analysis was used to evaluate alternative processes, such as irrigation options in guayule cultivation, processing scale in rubber extraction, and selection of allocation methodology in LCAs. Model uncertainty was characterized using Monte Carlo analysis. The LC energy consumption of the guayule tire (GT) was 13.7 GJ/tire (including co-product credits, excluding C sequestration during agriculture), compared to 16.4 GJ/tire for the CT. The GT had 6–30% lower emissions than CT in ten different environmental impact categories. Bagasse co-product in energy applications showed benefits of reducing energy consumption by 10% and decreasing environmental impacts by up to 11%. GT’s use-phase resulted in the highest energy consumption (95%) and environmental impacts ranging between 81 and 99%. Variables in use phase, i.e., rolling resistance coefficient, vehicle efficiency, and tire lifetime, and those in guayule cultivation i.e., rubber and biomass yields, were key model parameters. The effect of excluded but potentially important model parameters, i.e., guayule carbon sequestration and resin co-product were tested via sensitivity analyses. Based on these results that factored in the lower rolling resistance coefficient of a guayule tire—a significant element that improves the fuel economy of an automobile—the guayule rubber tire shows promise in its ability to replace current conventional tires. The first commercially manufactured guayule rubber passenger tire will most likely substitute components, which are either partially or fully guayule, instead of guayule replacing 100% of the existing rubbers as shown in this study.

3D Digital Image Correlation for vibration measurement on rolling tire: procedure development and comparison with Laser Doppler Vibrometer

Noise generated from rolling tire is strictly related to vibrations caused by the impacts of tread blocks on the road surface. Performing vibration measurements on rolling tires is a quite complex task and non-contact methods should be exploited. Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) is the technique that has been mainly used so far, but it has some disadvantages, among which the measurement duration represents the main issue. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) could represent an appealing alternative for this kind of measurement. Recent developments in Digital Image Correlation combined with the modern fast cameras could represent an innovative instrument for vibration measurement at high frequency (up to about 1000 Hz depending on rolling speed). This paper analyses the possibility of using 3D DIC for vibration measurement on rolling tire by a direct comparison with LDV. The advantages and disadvantages of both the techniques are highlighted along the paper by analysing data of an impact test (static case) and a rolling measurement.

Model reduction of gyroscopic systems in ALE formulation with and without non‐linearities

AbstractRotating systems are subject to gyroscopic influences which alter their dynamic behaviour. The Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation is a popular approach for related models, e.g. for the simulation of tire rolling contact. It allows for decoupling the rotational guiding motion from the relative deformation of the rotating structure. At the same time it complicates contact computations as the relative displacement between two material particles is not tracked naturally by the ALE observer. Model reduction techniques for (non‐linear) systems face additional challenges in this context, of which a variety is discussed here for common approaches such as the Second order modal truncation, the Krylov subspace method or the Craig‐Bampton method.

승용차용 타이어의 회전저항계수 변화에 따른 주행저항 및 연비 영향 분석

승용차용 타이어의 회전저항계수 변화에 따른 주행저항 및 연비 영향 분석

Auralization of simulated tyre noise: Psychoacoustic validation of a combined model

Due to improvements on combustion-engines and electric-engines for cars, tyre noise has become the prominent noise source at low and medium speeds. Models exist that simulate the noise produced by a rolling tyre, as do models that auralize different traffic situations from a basic data set. In this paper, an established model for tyre noise (SPERoN) is combined with an auralization tool. The combined model can predict the spectrum of the sound at 7.5 m, as well as reproduce the sound for a given listener position. The auralization uses a methodology where recorded sounds are converted to source signals for engine and tyre/road-interaction. These can be shaped by the spectra estimated in SPERoN and synthesized back into a pass-by signal. Psychoacoustic judgements were used to compare the modelled signals with recorded signals. To see how well the modelled signals match the real recorded signals for perception, two listening-tests were performed. The simulated and recorded signals were rated by pleasantness, loudness, roughness and sharpness using semantic differentials. It was found that responses for simulated and recorded signals correlate for all cases, but rankings could not be reproduced exactly. The model can be further improved to be more applicable for listening tests.

Computer simulation of tire rolling resistance using finite element method: Effect of linear and nonlinear viscoelastic models

This research work is devoted to the study of the effect of model parameters and material properties on tire rolling resistance. The main goal of this research is to investigate and clarify the effect of the adopted hyper-viscoelastic material model on tire rolling resistance simulation results. For this purpose, some new approaches were used and current shortcomings were introduced. Computer simulations were carried out using Abaqus standard command line. Linear and parallel rheological framework viscoelastic models were implemented and rolling resistance of a passenger car tire was determined. Different parametric simulations were carried out and the results were compared with rolling resistance data obtained from experimental tests. The results revealed that the calculated rolling resistance force depends on the implemented viscoelastic model. The linear viscoelastic model could not accurately predict the trend of rolling resistance with variation of tire inflation pressure and applied load. On the contrary, parallel rheological framework could cope with this trend. The parallel rheological framework model is more sensitive to inflation pressure. However, the sensitivity of both models to applied vertical load is nearly the same. Although cornering simulation is independent of the adopted viscoelastic model, the type of viscoelastic model could affect the footprint contact pressure contour.

A rolling resistance estimate using nonlinear finite element numerical analysis of a full three-dimensional tyre model

In accordance with the worldwide trend for developing energy-efficient vehicles and meeting environmental regulations, there exists a large potential for decreasing energy losses due to tyre rolling resistance and significantly reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions and also improve tyre tread durability. To achieve a quantitative estimate of tyre rolling resistance force, in the present paper, we carry out rolling resistance modelling in order to introduce a comprehensive relation for predicting rolling resistance force variations with speed taking into account the most influential parameters. To accomplish this goal, full three-dimensional finite element modelling of a visco-hyperelastic inflated rubber tyre under the deformation of vertical loading is performed and validated by making use of available test data. Free rolling simulations are performed and rolling resistance diagrams at various vehicle speeds and inflation pressures are extracted by analysing the results. According to the simulation results, a general formula is suggested to predict the tyre rolling resistance force in terms of the influential factors such as velocity, inflation pressure and tyre load. Results obtained using the proposed equation compared with recorded coast down test data clearly indicate excellent agreement between the results, confirming the validity of the relation. The presented solution can be built into models for comprehensive techno-economic evaluation of vehicle performance and fuel economy where changes in velocity, load and inflation pressure can be considered.

Finite Element Based Analysis of Reinforcing Cords in Rolling Tires: Influence of Mechanical and Thermal Cord Properties on Tire Response

ABSTRACT Tires of passenger cars and other special tires are made of rubber compounds and reinforcing cords of different type to form a composite with distinct mechanical and thermal properties. One of the major load cases is the steady state rolling operation during the tire's service. In this contribution, attention is paid to the strain and force state as well as the temperature distribution in the carcass cord layer of a steady state rolling tire. A simple benchmark tire geometry is considered, which is made of one rubber compound, one carcass cord layer (textile), and two belt cord layers (steel). From the given geometry, two tire designs are derived by using two distinct types of reinforcing cords (polyester and rayon) for the carcass cord layer. Subsequently, the two tire designs are subjected to three load cases with different inner pressure, vertical force, and translational velocity. The strain and the force state as well as the temperature distribution in the cords are computed via a thermomechanically coupled finite element simulation approach for each tire design and load case. To realistically capture the thermomechanical behavior of the cords, a temperature- and deformation-dependent nonlinear elastic cord model is proposed. The cord model parameters can be directly derived from data of cord tensile tests at different temperatures. Finally, cord design parameters (minimum and maximum strains and forces in the cords, maximum strain and force range per cycle, and maximum cord temperature) are summarized and compared. Additionally, the global vertical stiffness and the rolling resistance for each tire design are addressed.

Trailers for car tyres rolling resistance measurements

The experience of The Departament of Machine Design and Vehicles of Faculty of Mechanical Engineerig of Gdansk University of Technology regarding research devices (trailers) for car tyre/road rolling resistance measurements has been presented. The measuring trailers of this type have been described.

Durability prediction of an ultra-large mining truck tire using an enhanced finite element method

Ultra-class mining trucks used for material haulage in rugged surface mining terrains experience premature tire fatigue failure in operation. Typical failures include belt edge separation, ply turn-up separation, and tread base and sidewall cracking. The use of reinforcing fillers and processing aids in tire compounds result in the formation of microstructural in-homogeneities in the compounds. This article presents an application of the critical plane analysis technique for predicting the fatigue life of the belt package of an ultra-large mining truck (CAT 795F) tire of size 56/80R63 in a surface coal mine. Experimental data obtained from extracted specimens (sidewall, tread, and belt edge region) of the tire are used to characterize the stress–strain and fatigue behavior of the modeled tire. The tire’s duty cycle stresses and strains were obtained from finite element analysis of the rolling tire in Abaqus. Fatigue life calculations were performed in the rubber fatigue solver Endurica CL. Effects of inflation pressure, tire speed, and axle load on the fatigue life of the belt package under strain-crystallizing and non-crystallizing conditions of the belt compound are discussed. Specifically, the results show the belt edges to be critical regarding crack nucleation.

Tire/road noise and tire rolling resistance on the prototype PERS surface

Poroelastic road surfaces are characterized by low noise of tires running on them. Road pavements of this type are promising solution to problems related to traffic noise in cities and on rural roads. Some technical problems still have to be solved, in particular regarding durability and skid resistance on wet surface. Ongoing and planned works are to contribute to to create a quiet, durable and safe road surface, which will become an alternative to acoustic screens and vehicle speed reduction as an efficient noise reduction measure. The paper presents the results of laboratory and road tests of tire/road noise and rolling resistance on the prototype poroelastic surface (PERS) compared to the surfaces selected as a reference.

An alternative close-proximity test to evaluate sound power level emitted by a rolling tyre

The noise emission of a rolling tyre is produced by different physical mechanisms generated during the tyre-road interaction, being the main noise source of a vehicle when driving at high speeds. Diverse measurement methods can be found in the literature to assess the rolling noise emission. In that sense, the close-proximity (CPX) method allows to evaluate tyre/road sound level with at least two microphones operating in the close field of the test tyre. This paper presents a new methodology, based on the CPX method, which allows assessing the sound power level of the rolling tyre by introducing some changes in the traditional close-proximity test. The methodology (named A-CPX) has been analytically and experimentally validated, and is finally used to obtain the total tyre/road sound power level emitted by the whole set of tyres of a vehicle.

Thermo-mechanical coupling analysis of transient temperature and rolling resistance for solid rubber tire: Numerical simulation and experimental verification

The achievement of low rolling resistance and long-term durability of tires on various vehicles is of great challenge. Tire performances heavily depend on rubber properties; however, the thermo-mechanical coupling characteristics of rubber composites are complicated rendering the design of high-performance tires time-consuming and costly. In our research, the transient temperature and rolling resistance of a solid rubber tire were performed based on the thermo-mechanical coupling approach and nonlinear viscoelastic theory by using finite element method. Particular attention was paid to the strain cycles as the tire rolling on the road presents non-sinusoidal deformation. First, a static three dimensional tire-road contact analysis was conducted to obtain the principal strain cycles. Second, the 100th-order Fourier sine series was used to approximate the strain amplitude. Third, the heat generation rate proportional to the product of the loss modulus and the square of strain amplitude was calculated. The loss modulus was updated as a function of strain amplitude, temperature and frequency. Loss modulus softening effect was also considered. A practical method was proposed to compute the rolling resistance and transient temperature distributions by establishing a 2-D axisymmetric model. A rubber rolling tester was used to verify the numerical results. The comparison between numerical data and test data reveals that the proposed analytical method is a reliable approach to predict rolling resistance and transient temperature distribution for rubber tires. At last, the dependence of rolling resistance and heat build-up on thermal conductivity and loss factor were investigated by the parametric numerical experiments.

Development and Implementation of a Multi-Channel Active Control System for the Reduction of Road Induced Vehicle Interior Noise

An optimized driving comfort with a low interior noise level is an important intention in the passenger car development process. The interior noise level caused by the dynamic interaction between the rolling tyre and the rough road surface and transmitted via the car-body is a significant component of the entire noise level. To reduce the road induced interior noise, in general, the chassis system has to be optimized. Passive measures often induces a trade-off between vehicle dynamics and driving comfort. To overcome this disadvantage in this paper, the development and realization of an active measure is proposed. For the purpose of active mechanical decoupling, an active control system is developed, the feasibility of the integration is investigated and its noise reduction potential is identified by vehicle tests. In a first step, a classical multi-channel and experimental-based structure-borne transfer path analysis of the full vehicle is realized to determine the dominant transfer paths. The concept for the active mount system (active mounts, multi-channel control system, sensors) is developed and parametrized by system level simulation. Mechanical components and power electronics of the active system are designed, manufactured and tested in the laboratory. Subsequently, the entire active system is integrated into the vehicle. The broadband adaptive feedforward algorithm is extended by certain measures in order to improve robustness and performance. Full vehicle tests are used to quantify the required specifications and the achieved effectiveness of the active vibration control system.

HYBRID SILANE TECHNOLOGY IN SILICA-REINFORCED TREAD COMPOUND

ABSTRACT The use of a silane coupling agent in silica-reinforced tread can effectively improve silica dispersion in the rubber matrix and strengthen the interfacial interaction between the rubber and filler; this is beneficial to the enhancement of tire grip under wet conditions and reduces tire rolling resistance. The monofunctional silane n-octyltriethoxysilane (OTES) can react with the silanol group of the silica surface and hence improve silica dispersion. It can also suppress silica reaggregation during tire processing. Two hybrid silanes, OTES and 3-mercaptopropylethoxy-bis(tridecyl-pentaethoxy-siloxane) (Si747) or OTES and bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (TESPT), were filled in silica-reinforced tread compounds. The effect of the two hybrid silanes on the silica was investigated via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The processing ability of the silica-filled compounds and the performance of the vulcanizates were also investigated. Our experimental results show that OTES is able to further react with the silica following reaction between the TESPT and silica and that it should be added when the molar amount of TESPT or Si747 is constant, to prevent reduction of the cross-link density. Furthermore, the addition of OTES can extend the scorch time, especially in Si747 and OTES compounds. In addition, OTES can improve silica dispersion and only has a slightly negative effect on the physical properties of vulcanizates.

Newton‐Krylov method for computing the cyclic steady states of evolution problems in nonlinear mechanics

SummaryThis work is focused on the Newton‐Krylov technique for computing the steady cyclic states of evolution problems in nonlinear mechanics with space‐time periodicity conditions. This kind of problems can be faced, for instance, in the modeling of a rolling tire with a periodic tread pattern, where the cyclic state satisfies “rolling” periodicity condition, including shifts both in time and space. The Newton‐Krylov method is a combination of a Newton nonlinear solver with a Krylov linear solver, looking for the initial state, which provides the space‐time periodic solution. The convergence of the Krylov iterations is proved to hold in presence of an adequate preconditioner. After preconditioning, the Newton‐Krylov method can be also considered as an observer‐controller method, correcting the transient solution of the initial value problem after each period. Using information stored while computing the residual, the Krylov solver computation time becomes negligible with respect to the residual computation time. The method has been analyzed and tested on academic applications and compared with the standard evolution (fixed point) method. Finally, it has been implemented into the Michelin industrial code, applied to a full 3D rolling tire model.

Design and Performance Analysis of Vehicle Tyre Pattern Material Using Finite Element Analysis and ANSYS R16.2

As it stands now, rubber has been the main material used in the making of pneumatic vehicle tyres. Speed of the vehicle depends on many factors like steering geometry, inflation pressure, vehicle load, road temperature and environmental conditions. The main aim of this research is to develop a finite element approach and computationally evaluate the performance of a steady-state rolling tyre by changing the tyre tread patterns. The tyre normally composed of rubber and body-ply was investigated with regards to the effect of the inflation pressure. Tyre modeling using six different types of patterns was completed by using Creo parametric 3D modeling software and then the tyre was discretized into small elements through ANSYS R16.2. The rim area of the tyre was fixed and pressure was applied to the inside surface of the rim. Finite element analysis was completed by using ANSYS R16.2 and equivalent stress, contact stress and contact pressure were found out to identify the best tyre pattern. From the final results it was observed that, Pattern-I had good agreement of results as compared to other type of patterns which showed medium frictional stress and contact pressure.

Prediction of Close-Proximity Tire-Road Noise from Tire Cavity Noise measurements using a statistical approach

Noise due to the contact between the tire and the road is taking more and more importance in the development of cars, tires, and road coverings. This noise influences the comfort perception of the driver and the living quality of the surrounding people and has to be taken into account during the tire development. A recent study from the Danish Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment estimated that a reduction of the Tire-Road Noise of 6 dB(A) between 2009 and 2020 could save 11 billion euros yearly by reducing the number of annoyed peopled by 13 million and the number of sleep disturbed people by 6 million.Nowadays, several methods are used to quantify the noise of a rolling tire. All of them are, however, cost- and time-expensive, lack mobility, and are dependent on the surrounding weather and operating conditions. With a self-developed measurement system, it is now possible to predict the emitted Tire-Road Noise by measuring the noise inside the tire cavity.In this study, reproducible measurements were realized on a tire test bench, where the Tire Cavity Noise and the exterior Tire-Road Noise were simultaneously recorded. The influence of many parameters, such as the driving speed, tire load, inflation pressure, and tire cavity air temperature, on the cavity noise were studied. In the end, a correlation between the Tire Cavity Noise and the exterior Tire-Road Noise was found with a prediction quality of 1.4 dB(A).This study is a first step towards reducing the time and the costs needed for standard acoustic measurements for tire homologation or for assessing the acoustic quality of different road surfaces. Our measurement method is namely not influenced by the surrounding buildings and can be used without any interference in the flowing traffic. The costs for the needed hardware are also negligible compared to the conventional exterior noise measurement systems. However, the transferability of the results on the tire test rig to field measurements still has to be checked and will be done in a future study.

Novel Design of Eco-Friendly Super Elastomer Materials With Optimized Hard Segments Micro-Structure: Toward Next-Generation High-Performance Tires.

Recently, sustainable development has become a significant concern globally, and the energy crisis is one of the top priorities. From the perspective of the industrial application of polymeric materials, rubber tires are critically important in our daily lives. However, the energy consumption of tires can reach 6% of the world's total energy consumption per annum. Meanwhile, it is calculated that around 5% of carbon dioxide comes from the emission of tire rolling due to energy consumption. To overcome these severe energy and environmental challenges, designing and developing a high-performance fuel-saving tire is of paramount significance. Herein, a next-generation, eco-friendly super elastomer material based on macromolecular assembly technology has been fabricated. Hydroxyl-terminated solution-polymerized styrene-butadiene rubber (HTSSBR) with high vinyl contents prepared by anionic polymerization is used as flexible soft segments to obtain excellent wet skid resistance. Furthermore, highly symmetrical 1,5-naphthalene diisocyanate (NDI), different proportions of chain extender, and the cross-linking agent with moderate molecular length are selected as rigid hard segments to achieve simultaneous high heat resistance. Through this approach, a homogeneous network supported by uniformly distributed hard segment nanoparticles is formed because soft segments with equal length are chemically end-linked by the hard segments. This super elastomer material exhibits excellent wear resistance and low rolling resistance. More importantly, the wear resistance, rolling resistance, and wet-skid resistance are reduced by 85.4, 42.3, and 20.8%, respectively, compared to the elastomeric material conventionally used for tire. By taking advantage of this excellent comprehensive service performance, the long-standing challenge of the “magic triangle” plaguing the rubber tire industry for almost 100 years is resolved. It is anticipated that this newly designed and fabricated elastomeric material tailored for tires will become the next generation product, which could exhibit high potential for significantly cutting the fuel consumption and reducing the emission of carbon dioxide.

Simulation of temperature rise within a rolling tire by using FE analysis

A simulation method is proposed to predict temperature rise within a dynamic rolling tire. The friction heat from tire-road contact and the internal heat generated by hysteresis loss caused by rubber deformation are considered in the simulation model. A systematic process was developed to calculate the heat generation rate by using dissipated energy, and it was applied to the simulation model by establishing user subroutines. An axial tensile test was conducted for the rubber specimen, and the obtained stress-strain curve was applied to the simulation model based on the first-invariant Marlow model. The reliability of the simulation method was verified by comparing the tensile simulation and test results. A simplified 3D finite element tire model was developed, and simulations were performed in dynamic rolling conditions. Heat was generated because of friction and internal deformation. The temperature distribution within the tire, which was derived using the model, indicates that the proposed simulation method is reliable.