Road Landscape Research Articles

Analysis of spatial variation of street landscape greening and influencing factors: an example from Fuzhou city, China

Urban street greening is an important part of urban green infrastructure, and Green View Index (GVI) is widely used to assess urban street quality and ecosystem service value as an important indicator to quantify the perception of green street landscape from a pedestrian perspective. However, the distribution of street greenery is imbalanced. Therefore, to explore the differences in street greening levels within urban cities, we crawled streetscape data using the Internet to assess the spatial distribution patterns of urban street GVI using deep learning and spatial autocorrelation, and combined 11 surrounding environmental features with multi-source geographic data to further analyze the key factors influencing the spatial variation of block GVI using ordinary least squares, geographically weighted regression (GWR) models, and multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) models. The results show that the mean value of GVI in Fuzhou city is low (23.08%), with large differences among neighborhoods and a significant spatial autocorrelation. Among the regression models, MGWR has the best fit with an R2 of 0.702, where the variables of NDVI, house price, accessibility of water bodies and parks, and the proportion of built-up land have a greater impact on GVI, and the factors do not have the same spatial effect size. The results can provide a scientific basis for promoting green visual equity in different blocks.

The application of traditional Chinese cultural elements in urban street landscape using the Internet of Things and deep learning

The street design and landscape in China include cultural elements representing the Heritage and history of this generation. Such designs are planned, fabricated, and implemented based on previous elements and novel findings from the past. The novel findings are identified using sophisticated technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT). Therefore, this article introduces a Cultural Design Planning Method (CDPM) for Street Landscape (SL) in maintaining the renowned Heritage of Chinese roads. The proposed method relies on IoT-based data and cultural elements from the previous design and its impact on society. In this case, the impact is computed using attraction and cultural progression from the tourists and location. The cultural element’s connectivity and resemblance to the current location display the cultural progression. Such progression and impacts are recurrently validated using deep learning; the learning process identifies the elements and their associated impact on society. The previous and current street designs are augmented in the learning process to leverage placement and street design precision. The landscapes are periodically validated based on the current trends and associations.

Measuring the Multiple Functions and Tradeoffs among Streets: A New Framework Using the Deep Learning Method

With the sustainable and coordinated development of cities, the formulation of urban street policies requires multiangle analysis. In regard to the existing street research, a large number of studies have focused on specific landscapes or accessibility of streets, and there is a lack of research on the multiple functions of streets. Recent advances in sensor technology and digitization have produced a wealth of data and methods. Thus, we may comprehensively understand streets in a less labor-intensive way, not just single street functions. This paper defines an index system of the multiple functions of urban streets and proposes a framework for multifunctional street measurement. Via the application of deep learning to Baidu Street View (BSV) imagery, we generate three functions, namely, landscape, traffic, and economic functions. The results indicate that street facilities and features are suitably identified. According to the multifunctional perspective, this paper further classifies urban streets into multifunctional categories and provides targeted policy recommendations for urban street planning. There exist correlations among the various street functions, and the correlation between the street landscape and economic functions is highly significant. This framework can be widely applied in other countries and cities to better understand street differences in various cities.

Anthropogenic communication of the Cherkasy oblast as an ecosystem-forming component of the region modern landscape structure

Purpose. To investigate the anthropogenic communication of the Cherkasy oblast as an ecosystem-forming component of the modern landscape structure of the area of research. Research materials and methods. Methods. On the principle of natural-anthropogenic coexistence general scientific and specific scientific research methods were applied. Results. The peculiarities of natural conditions and natural resources are determined by the geographical location within the borders of the Dniester-Dnieper and Left Bank-Dnieper forest-steppe regions of the East European plain country. The class of road landscapes of the study area is formed by the following types of roads, namely: automobile, dirt, forest and field roads, railways. In the landscape structure of Zvenyhorod district, the length of highways, unpaved roads, field and forest roads, railways. Uman district and Cherkasy district have the highest index of connectivity in terms of road length. The lowest indicators of the index of communication in terms of the length of highways in Zolotoniskyi district. Uman district has the highest index of communication in terms of the length of dirt roads, and Zvenigorodsky district has the lowest. Zolotoniskyi district and Cherkasy district have the highest index of communication in terms of the length of field and forest roads. The lowest indicator is Zvenigorodsky district, Uman district. Cherkasy district has the highest communication index in terms of railway length and Zvenigorodsky district has the lowest. Conclusions. The Zolotonisky district of Cherkasy region has the highest index of general anthropogenic communicability, i.e. it has the highest degree of anthropogenic transformation of the territory and anthropogenic load

Quantifying the spatial quality of urban streets with open street view images: A case study of the main urban area of Fuzhou

With the advancement of global urbanization, urban streetscapes have become a critical part of urban public spaces. As one of the important ways to enhance the living environment, relevant government departments have accelerated the construction of urban streetscapes; however, certain issues, such as emphasis on surface and light protection, still persist. The visual effects of street landscapes hardly meet people's daily and spiritual needs. Therefore, assessing the quality of urban streetscapes has scientific and practical significance for improving urban planning and construction and creating a new intelligent and green city. In this study, the spatial distribution of vehicle interference index, spatial feasibility index, road area index, green visual index, sky visibility index, spatial enclosure index, color richness index, and visual entropy evaluation indices were drawn from the framework of combining deep learning and machine learning to quantify the spatial quality of urban streets by integrating a large number of streetscape images. The spatial quality of street landscape was evaluated according to the ELO scoring mechanism and random forest method, taking the main urban area of Fuzhou City as an example. The results showed that the overall street landscape quality of Fuzhou City was high, and the spatial distribution showed a pattern of concentrated high values in the center and dispersed high values in the periphery. Therefore, based on quantifying the spatial quality of urban streets, strategies, such as the pavement layout of pedestrian and vehicular paths, control of the continuity and permeability of visual landscape elements, and plant color matching, should be regulated. The method proposed in this study can provide novel insights for urban builders to improve the construction of cities.

How does three-dimensional landscape pattern affect urban residents' sentiments

The impact of urban street landscapes on residents' sentiments is a critical concern. However, the current representation of street landscapes through landscape pattern two-dimensional metrics (LP2DM) derived from remote sensing images neglects the perceptibility of residents' visible environments at the eye level. To address this gap, we developed a novel landscape pattern three-dimensional metric (LP3DM) to quantitatively represent landscape perceptibility based on four individual perception dimensions: green space, gray space, openness, and crowding. We then investigated the relationships between LP3DM and residents' sentiments using Baidu street view images and Weibo social media textual big data in Beijing, China. Our results demonstrate that LP3DM is more significant correlated with residents' sentiments than LP2DM (average contribution, ACLP2DM=0.025, ACLP3DM=0.054). Notably, the greenness metric exhibited the highest contribution (AC=0.12), with the greenness three-dimensional metric showing a positive correlation (r = 0.15, p < 0.01) with residents' sentiments, while grayness exhibited a slightly negative correlation (r = −0.087, p < 0.1). Our study highlights the importance of considering the perceptibility of natural landscape elements in addition to their quantity during urban construction to enhance residents' sentimental well-being. Overall, our LP3DM framework offers a promising approach to capture residents' landscape perceptibility and inform urban planning and design decisions.

HIGHLIGHTING OF FOCAL LANDSCAPES ON THE EXAMPLE OF VALLEY-RIVER LANDSCAPE-TECHNICAL SYSTEMS

River valleys are important in the structure of natural landscapes. They are the places of population concentration, ecological gutters and the landscape "framework" around which all other geocomplexes function. If the framework landscapes have been analyzed in detail by scientists, the focal landscapes are inflated beyond the attention of scientists.&#x0D; The purpose of the article is to analyze the structure of focal landscapes on the basis of the improved classification of anthropogenic landscapes by significance on the example of landscape-technical systems (LTchS) in the river valleys of the model region - the flat part of Right Bank Ukraine.&#x0D; Within the valley-river landscapes, the focal group includes road, mining, agricultural, and beligerative LTchS. Most modern road landscape technical systems belong to the category of "landscape technogenic systems". The destruction of man-made cover is associated with the excessive load on the road surface of motor vehicles, the weight of which often does not meet the established standards. As a result of mining and processing of minerals in river valleys, mining LTchS are formed. Active mining LTchS are formed by quarries, waste rock dumps and beneficiation or crushing and sorting plants and factories. The river valleys of the Right Bank of Ukraine are characterized by new anthropogenic types of areas that were formed after the extraction of minerals: areas of pit-peat wastelands and "rocky badlands". Valley-river agricultural LTchS are represented by water regulation and irrigation systems and vineyards. The lack of modernization and the use of outdated equipment and facilities do not allow the LTchS to fully function and produce the appropriate amount of crops. Beligerative landscape and man-made systems include complexes of defensive nodal structures "lines of defense" of the 20th century. Some critical remarks were made regarding the analysis of the structure of focal landscapes after the beginning of the full-scale invasion of the Russian Federation on the territory of Right Bank Ukraine. It was concluded that in the context of the study of modern anthropogenic landscapes of Ukraine, the study of focal valley-river landscape-technical systems will contribute to a better understanding of their structure and the development of ways of optimization.

Cloud-based Overall Design of Sculptural Public Art in Commercial Neighborhoods

INTRODUCTION: The shopping street has become the center of economic activities in the city. It is the most popular place in the city, the soul of the shopping street, the reflection of history, culture, folklore, geographical features, and even the city. With the rapid development of the commercial environment, the landscape sculpture on the shopping street is also developing rapidly, and its share in the city construction is getting bigger and bigger. Landscape sculpture is the key to the whole shopping street, so it is vital to study the design of sculpture public art in commercial neighborhoods. &#x0D; OBJECTIVES: The study of commercial neighborhood sculpture public art through the method of cloud computing in order to improve the overall design level of China's commercial neighborhood sculpture public art, to improve the integration of the development of China's architecture and fine arts field, and secondly, the overall design study of commercial neighborhood sculpture public art can also better improve the overall development of China's tourism industry, and to promote the further enhancement of tourism art.&#x0D; METHODS: The related commercial and commercial street sculpture theory is discussed. Secondly, the computer technology of cloud computing is further applied in the research of the overall design of the sculpture public art in the commercial street area in order to enhance the informatization level of the overall design of the sculpture public art in the commercial street area, to better adapt to the development of the Internet era. Lastly, the data related to the tourists is calculated using big data technology.&#x0D; RESULTS: Significant in studying shopping street landscape sculpture. Starting from the research and interpretation theory of small and medium-sized shopping street sculpture, it analyzes the positioning and development of Shaanxi's shopping street sculpture. The purpose is to synthesize the aesthetic characteristics of some commercial street landscape sculptures in Shaanxi Province. Then, the design principles and artistic values of small and medium commercial streetscape sculptures are summarized. In addition, problems and suggestions for optimizing commercial streetscape sculpture in Shaanxi Province and the future development strategy of commercial streetscape sculpture in China are also discussed.&#x0D; CONCLUSION: Cloud computing and other computer technologies can better enhance the overall design level of commercial streetscape sculpture public art and promote the combination of fine arts and construction industry and the development of tourism.

How Does the Living Street Environment in the Old Urban Districts Affect Walking Behavior? A General Multi-Factor Framework

To strike a trade-off between walking behavior and street resource constraint, extensive research tends to focus on how the urban environment affects walking behavior. However, most of the existing impact measurements focus on the cities in low-latitude temperate environments, which may not truly reflect the situation when assessing high-latitude cities. To address this drawback, in this paper, a general multi-factor framework is introduced to quantify the influence of street-level environmental factors on walking behavior. Specifically, a framework is constructed by comprehensively considering the subjective data and the objective data of Harbin, China, which is mainly composed of multivariate measurement indicators, a multi-source data analysis library, and four-dimensional evaluation paradigm. The results indicate that two main measures can promote the current situation of human-oriented living street environment planning, namely, increasing the distribution of green facilities and life service facilities in the old urban districts living street, and paying attention to the diversity of street greening and street landscape. The proposed framework is conducive to improve the planning status of human-centered street environments and guide the construction of pedestrian-friendly life and healthy streets.

Research on the segmentation method of a highway landscape corridor zone

Highway landscaping is an important part of highway construction, which plays a role in highway engineering to ensure traffic safety, alleviate visual fatigue, manifest culture, and many other roles. In the actual highway landscape design, the concept of highway landscape planning and design remains unclear, the content is complex, and the design lags behind the main construction of the problem. Different landscape themes should be set for different sections of the road to enable the motorway landscape to play its role, and the reasonable division of the highway landscape paragraph nodes and the determination of different landscape themes are the keys to the problem. This study collects natural and humanistic materials along the highway, arranges and classifies them through the cluster analysis method, and then divides the highway landscape into paragraphs through the fusion of cluster analysis and node control method. Then, the landscape resources in the paragraphs are integrated and refined to define the theme of the paragraphs, the landscape of the paragraphs based on the theme of the paragraphs is generated to bring out the regional cultural connotation, and a highway paragraph landscape theme division process is constructed. Finally, based on the survey of the landscape status quo of the Zhunxing Highway, the landscape theme division method is applied to verify its scientificity. The research results show that the highway paragraph landscape division method based on the cluster analysis method can effectively reflect the landscape characteristics of different road sections, enrich the road landscape design content, reflect the regional cultural characteristics, reduce the phenomenon of driver fatigue due to the landscape content of a single driving, and protect the traffic safety of the highway. This method can effectively guide the highway landscape paragraph planning and node design, has simple operation, and has strong practicality.

The Influence of Visual Landscapes on Road Traffic Safety: An Assessment Using Remote Sensing and Deep Learning

Rapid global economic development, population growth, and increased motorization have resulted in significant issues in urban traffic safety. This study explores the intrinsic connections between road environments and driving safety by integrating multiple visual landscape elements. High-resolution remote sensing and street-view images were used as primary data sources to obtain the visual landscape features of an urban expressway. Deep learning semantic segmentation was employed to calculate visual landscape features, and a trend surface fitting model of road landscape features and driver fatigue was established based on experimental data from 30 drivers who completed driving tasks in random order. There were significant spatial variations in the visual landscape of the expressway from the city center to the urban periphery. Heart rate values fluctuated within a range of 0.2% with every 10% change in driving speed and landscape complexity. Specifically, as landscape complexity changed between 5.28 and 8.30, the heart rate fluctuated between 91 and 96. This suggests that a higher degree of landscape richness effectively mitigates increases in driver fatigue and exerts a positive impact on traffic safety. This study provides a reference for quantitative assessment research that combines urban road landscape features and traffic safety using multiple data sources. It may guide the implementation of traffic safety measures during road planning and construction.

STUDY ON THE DRIVING GAZE SHIFT CHARACTERISTICS OF VISION INTERESTING AREA ON MOUNTAINOUS ROAD

Mountainous road landscape is the main source of driving information. The characteristics of two-lane mountainous road result in real-time dynamic changes in the driver's vision interesting areas. In order to explore the dynamic gaze characteristics, a driving experiment is conducted, and the gaze data of 10 drivers are collected. Markov chain is used to analyze the change process of gaze. The results show that: (1) when the current gaze point is in the straight front area, different road landscape has no significant impact on the gaze shift probability; (2) when the current gaze point is in the near left area, next gaze will expand the search scope to obtain much more driving information; (3) when the current gaze point is in the near right area, there is a high probability that the driver's next gaze will return to the front area; (4) when the current gaze point is in the far right area, the gaze will move back and forth between the near right and the far right areas; (5) when the current gaze point is in the far left area, there is a high probability that the gaze will remain in current area; (6) the main source of traffic information obtained by the driver in mountainous road landscape is the straight front area in the vision field, and the gaze point constantly shifts between the far ahead and the near ahead. The research results can provide technical reference for the construction of landscape in mountainous two-lane road.

Identifying Visual Quality of Rural Road Landscape Character by Using Public Preference and Heatmap Analysis in Sabak Bernam, Malaysia

The rural road landscape is crucial in forming rural areas’ landscape character (LC). As a platform for portraying the rural landscape, the rural roads demonstrate the area’s unique natural and cultural characteristics to visitors. However, with the continuous development of rural areas, the rural LC has been severely impacted, thus impacting visitors’ visual experience. In order to preserve and protect the rural landscape, this study aims to assess the visual quality of rural road landscapes based on public preference and heatmap analysis. The results indicated that most of the participants had a higher level of preference for rural landscapes with open horizontal views represented by agricultural areas, such as paddy fields. It was also found that different paddy field characters based on their planting stages can also positively affect the visual quality of rural road landscapes. The study also revealed that rural LCs with roadside settlements, commercial structures, mixed agricultural crops, and vegetation received low preference ratings. These characters negatively impact the visual quality of the rural road landscape. These findings provide significant insight for planners and decision-makers regarding protecting and preserving the essential rural road landscapes for the rural tourism experience.

The Evaluation of Art Beauty in the Integration of Art Elements Into Urban Street Landscape Ecological Environment Construction

The Evaluation of Art Beauty in the Integration of Art Elements Into Urban Street Landscape Ecological Environment Construction

The politics of heritage and place-making in Tanmen, China

Heritage is both embroiled in, and constituted by, complex, intertwined and contradictory processes. Using ethnographic research, the paper illustrates how heritage-making driven by the Authorised Heritage Discourse (AHD) intersects with socio-spatial and economic processes of place-making in China. The findings reveal the complex, entangled relationship between heritage and place in which elite and non-elite groups participate and interact. Local heritage of Tanmen is active, power-laden and intersects with political, social and economic affairs and expectations, not least to support Chinese sovereignty claims over the South China Sea. This analysis reveals the interplay in Chinese top-down and bottom-up heritage-making processes, in which elite groups tend to dominate by means of ICH policies and local residents tend to internalise the AHD in an attempt to reap benefits or reputation from it. The paper argues that there is a mutually reinforcing relationship between the nation-state and the local in the heritagisation process of local heritage, that works to add a scenario to the multifaceted relationship between places at different scales in heritage literature. Politically charged heritage-making processes, including re-narrativisation, commercialisation and reworking memories, are explored in terms of their impact and intersection with the local place regarding issues of identity, memory, economy and the street landscape. Overall, this paper provides a case study that seeks to understand a specific version of the AHD that reflects Chinese policies, ideologies and aspirations. It aims to reveal the intersection of heritage-making with place-making, to help comprehend the complex, intwined concepts of heritage, power and place in a non-Western society.

CARBON STOCKS ESTIMATION ON URBAN VEGETATION USING UAV-SfM PHOTOGRAMMETRY METHOD

Global warming and biodiversity loss are two critical issues currently debated among scientists and world policy makers. Forest retention and various reforestation and reforestation programs can play an important role in mitigating global climate change through sequestering atmospheric carbon. Forests are still the subject of discussion of the negotiations and exclude the contribution of vegetation outside the forest area. In fact, if trees outside the forest are not cut down, it can also reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. The lack of evidence regarding its potential and contribution to carbon stocks means that trees outside the forest have not been able to enter the negotiation.&#x0D; Vegetation in urban areas are an example of tree communities outside forest that have a major contribution to carbon sequestration in the atmosphere. Urban vegetation can be found in two main locations: Urban Green Open Spaces (UGS) and Road Landscapes (RL). In Bali, especially in Denpasar City, Glodokan Tiang or Polyalthia longifolia trees are planted as road shading trees or trees in green open spaces. To prove its contribution in terms of carbon sequestration, data management and a mechanism for calculating carbon stocks are needed. Generally, the calculation of tree carbon stock consumes a lot of energy and time because it is done manually (measuring tree height and DBH). Technology of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) can be used as an alternative to efficiently calculate the estimated of carbon stock in Urban Vegetation. The calculation uses the DBH value approach using the canopy area and tree height model (CHM) obtained from UAV data processing using the Sfm method.&#x0D; UAV estimates show that the highest AGB value at Bajra Sandhi Renon Field is 201.59 kg with a stored carbon content of 94.75 kg, while on I Gusti Ngurah Rai Bypass has the highest AGB value of 215.04 kg with a stored carbon content of 101.07 kg. These results have been validated by field observations, where the results of the regression analysis at the location of Bajra Sandhi Renon and I Gusti Ngurah Rai, shows that between field observation data and estimation data with UAV there is no significant difference. While the results of the t-test: Paired Two Sample for Means at the Bajra Sandhi Renon Field and the Bypass I Gusti Ngurah Rai have a value above the significance level which proves that there is no significant difference between the carbon stock value from field observations and the carbon stock from the UAV approach.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Carbon Stock; Urban Vegetation; UAV-Sfm.

Application of VR recognition based on image object detection algorithm in urban street landscape art design

Image target detection plays an important role in the field of VR recognition and art design. It is applied in many fields such as urban planning and weather monitoring in China. In recent years, depth neural network has become an important part of target detection algorithm. Target detection has shown excellent functions in segmentation, tracking and recognition. With the rapid development of image detection technology, targeted image detection has improved the quantity and quality of data. In the application of VR technology to the artistic design of urban street landscape, it not only helps designers better observe the world characteristics, but also constantly stimulates designers' thinking inspiration in the interactive environment, thus generating new ideas, new creativity, new means and rich creative content. Therefore, design can play a role from the conceptual stage to the final effect display stage. At this stage, VR recognition technology is not mature enough in the design of urban street landscape, which is still in the exploration stage. Select a suitable VR system, and further explore and study the functions of the selected engine system on this basis. Explore the virtual work route suitable for building street landscape, and select the virtual environment of street landscape to lay a solid foundation for VR identification technology. Based on the main technical content of VR identification, the actual change and interaction of operating materials can be reflected, and the results of urban street landscape design can be presented in the most intuitive way.

Establishing a Reliable Assessment of the Green View Index Based on Image Classification Techniques, Estimation, and a Hypothesis Testing Route

Sustainable development policies and spatial planning for maintaining greenery are crucial for all major cities in the world, and the measurement of green space indicators in planning practice needs to evolve in response to the demands of the times and technological drivers. This study explores an informal urban green space indicator, the green view index (GVI), which uses the visual perception of an observer to measure the quality of urban space by simulating the pedestrian perspective of the road in street-view image data and then calculating the proportion of vegetation in the road landscape. The GVI is different from macro indicators, such as public recreational green space, forest coverage, and green space rate, which are derived from planning data or remote sensing data in traditional urban planning; it starts from the bottom-up perception of individual residents and is more relevant to their subjective demands. At present, most international cities have made outstanding achievements in controlling public recreational green space, forest coverage, green space rates, and other macrolevel indicators of urban spatial quality; however, with the promotion of the concept of “human-oriented” urban planning, the potential restoration of urban spatial quality at the microlevel is gradually being recognized. To ensure the efficiency and reliability of this study, inspired by computer vision techniques and related GVI studies, a research method based on chromaticity was built to identify the proportions of green vegetation in street view images, and the credibility was improved by eliminating unreliable data. By using this method, we could evaluate a city at an overall scale instead of the previous block scale. The final research result showed that Shenzhen is friendly to human visual senses, and the GVI of the streets in developed areas is generally higher than that in developing areas. The geostatistical analysis of the green viewpoint data provides a more intuitive guide for researchers and planners, and it is believed to inform the planning and design of environmentally friendly, smart, and sustainable future cities.

Evaluasi Fungsional Dan Estetika Pohon Pada Lanskap Jalan Uluwatu I, Jimbaran

Functional and Aesthetic Evaluation of Trees in the Road Landscape of Uluwatu I, Jimbaran Street. Uluwatu I, Jimbaran street must have a road landscape that can provide comfort and create high beauty forroad users to support tourism infrastructure on Uluwatu I, Jimbaran street. Therefore, this study aims toevaluate the functional and aesthetic value of road landscape trees. The method used is the observationmethod. There are two aspects of tree function that are assessed, namely the shade function and the pollutioncontrol function. In the assessment of all aspects of tree function, segment 2 received the highest percentageof assessment (64.6%). Each function has an average fulfillment of 54.1% for the shading function and 51.5%for the pollution control function, which is included in the medium category. For aesthetic value, in landscapephotos of similar tree groups there are only two landscape photos that fall into the category of high aestheticvalue, namely landscape photos 3 (segment 1) and landscape photos 7 (segment 4). In the mixed tree grouplandscape photo, there is only one landscape photo that is included in the high aesthetic value category, namely landscape photo 8 (segment 4). Therefore, intensive care is needed for young trees, so that tree height, branch height above the ground and maximum canopy shape can reach the ideal value. Adding a layer of plants, also adding tree planting to create a road landscape with high functional and aesthetic value.&#x0D;

Street Landscape Optimization in the Context of Smart City

With the continuous construction of smart cities, all aspects of urban management are also moving towards intelligence, and the smart city concept as a tool for urban planning can also help urban development. This paper analyses the current stage of China's urban street landscape construction to understand the importance of urban street landscapes for cities and what deficiencies still exist today. A certain vision of how the future smart city street landscape will develop is given.