Kali River Research Articles

Floristic diversity of mangroves and mangrove associate species of Kali River Estuary, Karwar, Karnataka, India

This study assessed the mangrove flora of the Kali River estuary, Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka. Fourteen true mangrove species belonging to eight families and 11 genera were documented from four locations: Devbagh, Mavinhole, Kalimatha Island, and Halgejoog. The mangrove species show a discontinuous distribution pattern in the Kali River estuary. The highest IVI in true mangroves was recorded for Avicennia officinalis at Devbagh, Acanthus ilicifolius at Mavinhole, Sonneratia caseolaris (after Oryza coarctata) at Kalimatha Island, and S. caseolaris (after Derris trifoliata) at Halgejoog. Of the four sites, Devbagh has the highest Shannon-Wiener diversity index, and with regard to species composition, Devbagh and Kalimatha Island are the most similar sites. Kalimatha island has the most well-preserved mangrove community.

Shear wave crustal velocity structure in the Garhwal-Kumaon Himalaya based on noise cross-correlation of Rayleigh wave

The tectonics of the Garwal-Kumaon Himalaya is characterized by thrusts, tectonic windows, and klippen. We investigate crustal shear wave velocity variations using ambient noise cross-correlation tomography. The studied region encompasses the Kali River valley in the east to Satluj valley in the west, with the adjoining Indo-Gangetic Plain in the south covering the northern part of the Delhi-Haridwar ridge. The fundamental mode group velocities of Rayleigh waves are extracted from cross-correlation data of 33 broadband seismological stations from a regional seismic network. A total of 374 dispersion curves with a period range of 4–29 s show a group velocity variation between ∼2.3 and ∼ 3.4 km/s. The shear wave velocity structure of the uppermost lithosphere down to ∼50 km obtained by non-linear inversion of the Rayleigh wave dispersion data provides new insight into the geometry of the crust. A large variation in Vs in the range of ∼2.8 to ∼4.7 km/s corresponds to a variety of changes in the tectonic deformation, structure, and crustal thickness of the Himalayan wedge. Thick low-velocity sedimentary formations are identified beneath the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the frontal Himalaya. Anomalous low Vs zones are also observed in the mid-crust beneath the higher Himalaya and southern Tibet, indicating partial melting or the presence of aqueous fluid zones. The high-velocity anomalies may be correlated with duplex structures beneath the Lesser Himalaya and with lithospheric flexure.

An Invasive Ecological Study on the Flora of Soil Seed Bank and Standing Vegetation Across Diverse Anthropo-ecosystems in Indian Dry Tropics

Plant invasions in tropical ecosystems are being increasingly realized particularly in highly dynamic but fragile dry tropical ecosystems, where there is generally little ecological information on invasions in subterranean vegetation. The present study was carried out to understand the floristic composition of both seed bank and standing vegetation across a range of five diverse anthropo-ecosystems in an urban region in Indian dry tropics. A total of one hundred soil samples (each of size of 25cm×25cm from 0-5 cm and 5-10 cm depth) from five anthropic sites (vegetation of University campus, polluted Kali River bank, Brick kiln, Waste land and Road side) were analyzed for their taxonomic position, life form and bio-geographic origin of the seedling emergents in relation to the flora in standing vegetation. A total of 221 plant species (58% aliens, 34% of aliens of American origin, 75% weedy herbs) in standing vegetation spread over 54 families were recorded in standing vegetation of the study sites with more than 55% representation from eight dominant families led by Fabaceae, Poaceae and Asteraceae followed by Malvaceae, Amaranthaceae and Solanaceae. In contrast, a total of 81 seed bank flora (10 unidentified, 62% aliens, 43% of American origin, 87% herbs) distributed over 32 angiospermic families were recorded. While none of the seed bank vegetation at any site showed significant similarity with its standing vegetation indicating the minor role of seed bank flora in the regeneration of the standing plant communities above ground. However, a considerable similarity among seed banks and standing vegetation at other sites indicated a significant possible role of anthropogenic activities in the urban regions of Indian dry tropics, evinced by the largest proportion of grasses and herbs dominated by exotics, especially of American origin. These aliens through successful naturalization via seed banks may cause homogenization of floristic structure. In conclusion, the present study revealed a heavy scale of intrusion by the alien plants dominated by American elements into not only standing vegetation but also in seed banks across the anthropic sites in urban regions in Indian dry tropics which is likely to alter the standing vegetation floristic structure with a larger abundance of alien flora.

Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Soil and Two Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Varieties Irrigated with Paper Mill Effluent

Heavy metal pollution from industrial wastewaters has become an issue of global concern. These wastewaters are frequently used for inland irrigation which possess a serious risk of heavy metal contamination of both soil and cultivated crops. The problem is more common in developing countries like India where industrial wastewaters are often discharged without appropriate treatments. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the impact of paper mill effluent for irrigation on the growth, productivity, and heavy metal accumulation potential of two rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties (PB-1121 and PR-121). Water, soil, and rice crop samples were obtained from the vicinity of Saharanpur city, Uttar Pradesh, India, and subsequently analyzed for selected physicochemical and heavy metal parameters. Results showed that paper mill effluent and nearby Kali River water had significant (p < 0.05) loads of pollutants that impacted the soil properties. Moreover, the maximum plant height (123.48 ± 4.86 and 98.83 ± 2.02 cm); total chlorophyll (6.70 ± 0.25 and 6.64 ± 0.17 mg/g); leaf carotenoids (0.67 ± 0.08 and 0.63 ± 0.05 mg/g); starch content (71.08 ± 2.05 and 72.60 ± 1.63%); amylose content (25.10 ± 1.32 and 20.28 ± 1.24%); crop yield (4270.20 ± 75.12 and 5830.58 ± 63.10 kg/ha); and straw yield (5472.05 ± 93.90 and 6683.76 ± 61.26 kg/ha) of PB-1121 and PR-121, respectively, were observed using Kali River water irrigation source as compared to paper mill effluent and borewell water. The order of heavy metal accumulation in rice straw and grain followed: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > Cr > Cd. Similarly, the bioaccumulation factors for heavy metals in rice straw and grain were observed as >1 and <1, respectively. Moreover, the target hazard quotient (THQ) showed that there was no potential health risk of heavy metal in rice irrigated with contaminated water supply except for the PR-121 variety irrigated with Kali River water where the health risk index (HRI) value exceeded the limit (>1). As a result, the findings of this study provide useful information about the current state of heavy metal pollution and the health risks associated with rice crops irrigated with contaminated water sources.

Application of machine learning algorithms in landslide susceptibility mapping, Kali Valley, Kumaun Himalaya, India

The study focuses on the preparation of landslide susceptibility maps in the Kali River valley, Kumaun Himalaya using three machine learning algorithms, namely K-nearest neighbour (KNN), random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGB). Fifteen landslide conditioning factors (LCFs) were selected and an inventory of 368 landslides was used for the analysis. Multicollinearity analysis using the variation inflation factor, tolerance and Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) depicted less to no similarity between all factors. Evaluation of variable importance suggests LCFs such as slope, elevation and distance to thrust contributed significantly and consistently for all three models. Model accuracy was determined and compared using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve and other statistical signifiers like accuracy, sensitivity, F-measure, accuracy, specificity and recall. The results show that the ensemble algorithms, XGB and RF, yield higher accuracy of approximately 85% compared to the KNN model with 81% accuracy.

Geochemistry of the Kali River terrace sediments in Central Himalaya, India: Implication on nature of provenance in the known tectonic environment

In the Central Himalaya, the Kali River flow through the rocks of Tethys sedimentary (TS) sequences and Higher Himalayan crystallines (HHC) towards the upstream and through the Lesser Himalayan metasedimentary (LHS) the Siwaliks rocks in the downstream. The terrace sediments of the Kali River are geochemically investigated to infer nature of source region i.e. provenance and degree of chemical changes in the known tectonic setting during their journey. The low to high chemical index of alteration (CIA) of sediments (CIA = 22.24–87) indicate a dominant role of chemical and subordinate physical processes during sediment-forming mechanism. The longitudinal course emanating from TS in upper reaches to the Siwaliks in the lower reaches, the sediments along the main Kali River bear higher content Na2O, K2O, CaO and silica fractionation. The high and low ratios of La/Sc, Th/Sc and Co/Th advocate the dominance of felsic component in the source rocks. The content of Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, La, Th, Sc, and Co/Th, La/Sc and Sc/Th ratios indicate the derivation of sediments dominantly from the leucogranite, granite to granodiorite and its gneissic sources, which commonly prevail in the rocks of Higher Himalayan crystallines sequences (HHCS). However, recycling and contribution of some aluminous Tethyan metasediments in the Kali River cannot be ruled out. Geochemical plots involving mobile and immobile elements show that erosion (sediment sorting) and weathering played a dominant role in the gradual change of sediment chemistry from source regions to catchments bed-load in the basin.

The quality of surface water of river kali and its effect on groundwater in Muzaffarnagar District

: With rapidly increasing urbanization and scarcity of adequate river water, there is a constant rise in the extraction of groundwater and its use for various purposes such as drinking, bathing etc. But due to steep expansion of industrialization there is increase in amount of discharge of untreated sewage water in these water bodies which imposes a high risk of percolation to nearby groundwater sources creating an alarming situation to public health. One such case is of the River Kali in Muzaffarnagar District where untreated water from numerous industries flows in which makes its water unfit for use. The study was carried out to access the effect of river water to groundwater within 500m radius and study its impact on public health.This was an observational study conducted in Muzaffarnagar district where, river water from 4 locations and groundwater from 4 locations (near 500m radius) was taken and tests performed for pH, taste, odor, BOD, Coliform count, heavy metals, hardness, suspended solids using references from Indian standards of drinking water. : The water quality of river Kali is not fit for any purpose and also the Groundwater in its proximity is not fit for drinking.

Assessment of morphometric characteristics and decadal fluctuation of groundwater level of Kali River basin and its link with climate change, West Uttar Pradesh, India Using Geographical Information System

The Kali River is a sixth-order tributary of the Ganga River. It originates near Khatoli town in Muzaffarnagar and confluences with the Ganga River at Kanauj District, Uttar Pradesh. In this study, drainage morphometry, temporal groundwater level observations and precipitation data are used to examine surface and subsurface hydrological conditions. Survey of India topographic maps has been used to identify the basin characteristics based on their 1:50,000 scale. The groundwater and precipitation data were obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department and the Indian Water Resources Society. The basin area was calculated about 11,470 sq. km with an NW-SE sloping. In addition, it is elongated-shaped with a dendritic pattern. The bifurcation ratio (5.06), drainage density (0.65), stream frequency (0.24) and ruggedness number (0.09) show strongly permeable alluvium, low relief, high infiltration rate, least erodible and high permeability. The basin reflects a relationship between spatio-temporal groundwater level and rainfall (~21 years: 1996 to 2017). According to this study, the water level declined at a rate of 124.7 meters per year as a result of excessive groundwater use and climate changes such as a decrease in precipitation rates around the area. Therefore, it is recommended to conservation of groundwater resources in the future.

Chemical denudation in a small mountainous coastal river in the tropics: Insights from Kali River, Southwestern India

A study was conducted for the first time to understand the geochemical processes controlling the chemistry of the Kali River in tropical southwestern India and to determine its chemical denudation and net carbon dioxide consumption. The samples were collected from the source to the mouth of the river (15 stations) during monsoon (July 2018), post-monsoon (December 2018), and pre-monsoon (May 2019) seasons. The catchment experiences intense chemical weathering on account of heavy rainfall accompanied by runoff during the summer monsoon. Seasonal variations in silicate weathering processes are significantly controlled by runoff, and their rates are proportional to the discharge. The annual chemical denudation rate (CDR) calculated exclusively from the upstream catchment that are dominated by silicate rocks estimated to be 48.2 tons/km2/yr with a silicate weathering rate (SWR) of 41.3 tons/km2/yr and carbonate weathering rate (CWR) of 6.9 tons/km2/yr. The CDR is two times higher than the global mean average rate. The mean CO2 consumption rate (CCR) for silicate weathering is 2.9 × 105 mol. km−2 y−1, which is three-fold higher than the global average. Silicate rock weathering intensity (Re) values indicate the formation of the gibbsite. The Re does not show variations from upstream to downstream, implying the rapid transport of weathered material from the river catchment area. Intense rain, runoff, and temperature are the dominant climatic factors that accelerate weathering in the study area. This underscores the significance of small mountainous coastal rivers as drivers of intense chemical weathering in humid tropical environments, which removes the atmospheric CO2. This study adds to the existing database on chemical weathering and associated fluxes in granitic catchments across the globe.

A survey on the traditional and indigenous fishing methods in the Kali River, Uttarakhand, India

The rain-fed river Kali (29°24’09 “N, 80°15’17 “E) of Uttarakhand was the study area. To know the fishing techniques capture fisheries status were the objectives of the study. This study will be helpful for farmers, researchers and sustainable capture fishery development practice. One year of sampling and data collection methods were; interaction- based data collection, direct interactive field survey, field own observation-measurement of different nets and communication with the local community. Fishing net classification and identification was done by literature. Three types of fishing methods were used in the area; ‘commonly used methods’ included fishing with cast nets, gill nets, dip nets, hand nets, dragged nets, hooks, and traps, whereas ‘rarely used’ (only 2%) methods included only some nets and techniques, and ‘cost-effective method’ included the use of explosives and 06 ichthyo-toxic plants. Fishing tools were designed according to fish for size specific capture of fish. The use of fishing methods depend upon the topography, geography and climatic conditions of that area.

Morpho-structural approach to assess landslides in the Kali river valley, NE Kumaun Himalaya, India

Morpho-structural approach to assess landslides in the Kali river valley, NE Kumaun Himalaya, India

Environmental Factors and Genetic Diversity as Drivers of Early Gonadal Maturation: A Gonadosomatic Index Based Investigation on Indian Shad, Tenualosa ilisha Population of Bangladesh

In recent years, attaining gonadal maturation in smaller Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha) has become a burning issue for Hilsa fishery of Bangladesh. Causes of early maturation are not yet clearly understood. Along with environmental parameters, genetic differentiation within the population was hypothesized as the main driver, and therefore, assessing the correlation between gonadosomatic index (GSI) and environmental factors and analyzing genetic diversity were set as objectives of the present study. To address these complex issues, six diverse habitats across Bangladesh were chosen for Hilsa sample collection. For GSI, gonad was dissected from fresh fish and preserved in Bouin’s fluid for histological observation. Water quality parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and salinity were also assessed. 35 fish from each habitat were used to extract and amplify DNA through the PCR technique, and genetic diversity was examined. Further, to draw a firm conclusion, the phylogenetic tree of the Hilsa population was developed by the unweighted pair-group method of arithmetic mean method based on the Cyt b gene of mitochondrial DNA. Results of GSI studies revealed that peak spawning months of T. ilisha were in October and February, where October showed the highest values in all six habitats. Histological examination showed different stages of gonadal development in different sizes and ages of Hilsa. Among all sampling sites, no statistical difference was observed for GSI value; however, smaller sized and aged Hilsa being ripped were evident in Gaglajur Haor and Kali River. Among the observed water quality parameters, temperature correlated with GSI strongly. Increased GSI was observed with temperature augmentation from downstream to upper stream, irrespective of body size and age. A perplex correlation between dissolved oxygen of observed habitats and GSI was executed. Other physico-chemical parameters viz. pH and salinity exhibited weak and moderate positive association with the GSI, respectively. Haplotype diversity of mitochondrial DNA divided the Hilsa population into three possible sub-populations, where the most distant group (Gaglajur Haor and Kali River) was subjected to early gonadal maturity. Results of this study make clear conclusions regarding the role of environmental and genetic factors on early gonadal maturations, pointing fingers at the curse of climate change and anthropogenic stressors for the migration of the Hilsa fishery of Bangladesh.

Hydrochemical characteristics and water quality indices‐based assessment of River Kali for agricultural irrigation in northern India*

AbstractHigh‐quality water is required to produce a greater crop yield. River water is a major source of irrigation; however, in several densely populated countries, it is severely polluted due to anthropogenic activities. We aim to assess the Kali River water quality from 17 sampling stations using hydrochemical characterization in western Uttar Pradesh during the pre‐ and post‐monsoon seasons. The suitability of river water quality for agricultural irrigation was determined by water quality indices such as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), sodium percentage (Na%), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeability index (PI), magnesium ratio (MR), and Kelley's index (KI). Results of the study showed that water quality in terms of pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, Cl−, SAR, and MR is moderately suitable for agricultural irrigation. However, only 64.7% (NO3−N), 88.2% (HCO3−), and 70.6% (B) samples in pre‐monsoon and 70.6% (NO3−N), 100% (HCO3−), and 64.7% (B) samples in post‐monsoon were acceptable for irrigation. In addition, 94.1%, 23.5%, and 70.6% of samples in pre‐monsoon and 82.4%, 17.6%, and 23.5% of samples in post‐monsoon analysed for Na%, RSC, PI, and KI, respectively, were found suitable for irrigation. The analysis of selected water quality parameters and water quality indices shows that Kali River water is polluted at the downstream side, and its suitability for agricultural irrigation varies with the season.

First record of Prawn Leptocarpus potamiscus (Kemp, 1917) (Crustacea: Decapoda: Palaemonidae) from Karnataka, West Coast of India

The study reveals the first record of prawn species Laptocarpus potamiscus (Kemp, 1917) from Karnataka coast, West Coast of India. The genus Laptocarpus mainly described by their prominent key characters viz., presence of antennal spines, a prominent branchiostegal grooves and the absence of branchiostegal spines on the carapace. Globally, the genus Leptocarpus represents only three species with its Asian distribution, hitherto recorded from different localities across the Indian subcontinent. Specimen collected from Kali River estuary, Karwar being the first record from the Karnataka state. The morphological characters examined were similar to the description revealed for L. potamiscus by Kemp and Jayachandran. Hence, the study updates geographical distribution of L. potamiscucs from the Karnataka coast.

Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils and Crops Irrigated by Kali River in Uttar Pradesh, India.

The study investigated concentrations, distribution, and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in agriculture soil and crops irrigated by the Kali River of Uttar Pradesh, India. Soils and crop samples were collected from 17 locations along the river and analyzed for heavy metal concentrations. Metals in soil and plant were recorded as Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu > Ni > Pb > Cr > Cd and Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu > Cr > Ni > Pb > Cd, respectively. The bioaccumulation factor was < 1 that indicates lesser accumulation of metals in plants except for Cd, Mn, and Zn. Metal pollution index ranged between 1.84 and 6.62 and shows that crops growing at the S10 to S17 sites accumulate greater metal concentrations. Cluster analysis showed agglomeration of Cr-Pb-Cd, Cu-Ni-Mn, and Fe-Zn which revealed different sources of metal pollution. The present study shows low to moderate heavy metal pollution in Kali River irrigated areas thus consumption of agriculture produce may cause adverse health effects.

Remote sensing-based water quality index estimation using data-driven approaches: a case study of the Kali River in Uttar Pradesh, India.

The present study evaluates the water quality status of 6-km-long Kali River stretch that passes through the Aligarh district in Uttar Pradesh, India, by utilizing high-resolution IRS P6 LISS IV imagery. In situ river water samples collected at 40 random locations were analyzed for seven physicochemical and four heavy metal concentrations, and the water quality index (WQI) was computed for each sampling location. A set of 11 spectral reflectance band combinations were formulated to identify the most significant band combination that is related to the observed WQI at each sampling location. Three approaches, namely multiple linear regression (MLR), backpropagation neural network (BPNN) and gene expression programming (GEP), were employed to relate WQI as a function of most significant band combination. Comparative assessment among the three utilized approaches was performed via quantitative indicators such as R2, RMSE and MAE. Results revealed that WQI estimates ranged between 203.7 and 262.33 and rated as “very poor” status. Results further indicated that GEP performed better than BPNN and MLR approaches and predicted WQI estimates with high R2 values (i.e., 0.94 for calibration and 0.91 for validation data), low RMSE and MAE values (i.e., 2.49 and 2.16 for calibration and 4.45 and 3.53 for validation data). Moreover, both GEP and BPNN depicted superiority over MLR approach that yielded WQI with R2 ~ 0.81 and 0.67 for calibration and validation data, respectively. WQI maps generated from the three approaches corroborate the existing pollution levels along the river stretch. In order to examine the significant differences among WQI estimates from the three approaches, one-way ANOVA test was performed, and the results in terms of F-statistic (F = 0.01) and p-value (p = 0.994 > 0.05) revealed WQI estimates as “not significant,” reasoned to the small water sample size (i.e., N = 40). The study therefore recommends GEP as more rational and a better alternative for precise water quality monitoring of surface water bodies by producing simplified mathematical expressions.

Quantitative pollen-based reconstruction of the vegetation diversity in response to the late-Holocene climate change near Karwar, south-west coast of India

In low latitude regions, due to impact of abrupt climate change/human interference, significant changes in vegetation, particularly the destruction of the highly fragile mangrove ecosystem has been noticed in different tropical areas of the world. In this study, a sediment core collected from the Kali Estuary has been used to determine the vegetation distribution of the Western Ghats since the late Holocene. Pollen and magnetic susceptibility data have been used as proxies to achieve objectives of the study. There has been a dramatic decrease in mangroves, evergreen (tree taxa) and deciduous forest pollens and the abundance of herbaceous/savanna type grassland pollen over the past 3.5 ka. This is supported by the significant decrease of the low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (χlf) of the core reflecting the decrease in the summer monsoon rainfall. Therefore, the post-3.5 ka time period marks the beginning of the recolonization of vegetation. Rarefied diversity pattern plots were used to evaluate abundance and evenness in the pollen data as a result of the late-Holocene climate change. A significant increase in the diversity of herbaceous/savanna grassland taxa in the post-3.5 ka sequence of the core indicates the regional expansion of the agriculture in the Kali River basin. In contrast, the reduction in the taxonomic diversity of mangroves and arboreal taxa implies less-conducive environmental conditions for their growth, with further reduction due to anthropogenic interference. The magnetic susceptibility of the core measured at one cm interval indicates the general decrease in the intensity of the summer monsoon rainfall.

Dissolved carbon and silica fluxes from Kali, Sharavati and Sita-Swarna rivers, Southwestern India

Spatio-temporal behaviour of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), inorganic carbon (DIC) and silica (DSi) along the salinity gradient of three south-west Indian monsoonal estuaries are presented. This study showed both conservative and non-conservative behaviour of DOC along the salinity gradient under varying physico-chemical conditions. The gross flux of DOC arriving at the estuary from the rivers was estimated as 0.9 × 109 g/yr for Sita-Swarna river, 4.2 × 109 g/yr for Sharavati river and 5.6 × 109 g/yr for Kali river. Similarly, the net fluxes of DOC estimated beyond the estuarine zone was 5.5 × 109 g/yr (Sita-Swarna), 8.0 × 109 g/yr (Sharavati) and 7.7 × 109 g/yr (Kali). This indicates that these estuaries are the sources of organic carbon to the ocean. The DIC linearly increased towards the higher salinity with net fluxes of 38 × 109 g/yr (Sita-Swarna), 75 × 109 g/yr (Sharavati) and 97 × 109 g/yr (Kali). The combined DIC flux of Sita-Swarna, Sharavati and Kali rivers is ~8% of the total DIC fluxes received from the west flowing rivers of India, to the Arabian Sea. The DSi showed a biogenic removal of 80–85% in all the studied estuaries. From this study it is concluded that the west flowing river estuaries are net sources of DOC and DIC and net sink for DSi. Consideration of the role of west flowing rivers of peninsular India is important for the better understanding of the carbon dynamics in the river-estuary-ocean boundary.

Effect of disturbed river sediment supply on shoreline configuration: A case study

ABSTRACT The magnitude of river sediment supply and its distribution play a significant role in coastal sediment dynamics, especially in erosion and deposition. Due to the construction of the dam, obstruction in the natural flow of water occurs, and part of the sediment is trapped. In the present study, the Kali river catchment and its river-mouth at Karwar, Devbagh, and Ravindranath Tagore beaches are considered as the study area, to assess the impact of dams on coastal processes. Landsat data for 42 years, from 1975 to 2017, were collected and analyzed using DSAS, an ArcGIS extension. The sediment yield estimated at the Kali river basin outlet, without the dam is 4.19 t/ha/yr and with the dam, it is estimated to be 1.42 t/ha/yr. Similarly, for the Aghanashini river basin outlet, the sediment yield was found to be 4.58 t/hr/yr. From the results of shoreline analysis, it is found that after the construction of the dam, Devbagh beach is under erosion at the rate of −0.93 m/yr End Point Rate (EPR) and −0.47 m/yr Linear Regression Rate (LRR). Ravindranath Tagore beach also has undergone erosion, which is −0.75 m/yr (EPR) and −0.97 m/yr (LRR). Further, both the beaches have been changed to the erosion zone.

Ecological studies on the aquatic macro-invertebrate population dynamics of the snow-fed Kali River in Uttarakhand, India

Freshwater macro-invertebrates are the bottom dwelling organisms. Their presence, distribution and diversity is affected by many eco-biological factors. The aim of this study was to assess the factors that impact upon the population dynamics of macro- invertebrates, while correlating the relationship between various physio-chemical parameters and macro-invertebrates from the Kali River, Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand). The samples were collected using a quartet square in the sampling area of one square feet of the stream bed, which was then, after placing in 70% alcohol, taken to the laboratory for identification and enumeration. A total of 24 genera and 28 species were found during the study, which belongs to 3 phylum, 5 classes, 10 order and 20 families. A total of eight physiochemical parameters were studied on a monthly basis round the year. The ecological impact was measured by establishing the correlation between recorded physio-chemical parameters and invertebrates’ diversity, in which water temperature, air temperature, velocity, and conductivity showed a negative correlation while pH, DO, total alkalinity, and total hardness showed a positive correlation. Various alpha diversity indices were estimated with the help of PAST software which indicated diverse macro-invertebrate communities in the Kali River in District Pithoragarh.