Levi-Montalcini Research Articles

Rita Levi-Montalcini: From Persecution to the Nobel Prize and an Honorary Degree From a Canadian University.

Rita Levi-Montalcini (RLM) is recognized as a prestigious and renowned researcher of her time. She was the fourth woman to earn the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1986 for the discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF). We review her biography and scientific discovery, and provide an example of why her discovery is still important. She had a special relationship with McGill University, Canada, which we describe. We searched for articles and books about her for biographical and scientific material and met with Dr. Claudio Cuello, Former Chair of McGill's Faculty of Medicine. RLM was born in 1909 in Turin, Italy, where she had studied medicine. She started her career in research. Because of the anti-Jewish racial laws in Italy in 1938, she went underground and continued her projects in her bedroom. After the war, she visited St. Louis, USA, and conducted research there. Her experiments confirmed that tumors release a factor that causes nerve growth and cancer proliferation. Initially, scientists responded to this discovery with skepticism, but after its purification in 1959 and determination of its protein structure in 1971, NGF became widely accepted.Currently, crosstalk between cancers and nerves is poorly understood. The example of prostate cancer shows that surgical or chemical denervation of sympathetic nerves prevents the initiation of prostate tumors, whereas inhibition of parasympathetic nerve signaling reduces the spread of prostate cancer. McGill University awarded RLMa doctoral degree in 2011. It was the first time in itshistory that the University awarded an honorary doctorate outside of Canada, and the second one outside of Quebec.Through her discovery of NGF, RLM exemplified the power of passion and determination despite the obstacles she faced. Her relentless dedication has led to remarkable achievements.

The History of Nerve Growth Factor: From Molecule to Drug.

Nerve growth factor (NGF), the first neurotrophin to be discovered, has a long and eventful research journey with a series of turning points, setbacks, and achievements. Since the groundbreaking investigations led by Nobel Prize winner Rita Levi-Montalcini, advancements in the comprehension of NGF's functions have revolutionized the field of neuroscience, offering new insights and opportunities for therapeutic innovation. However, the clinical application of NGF has historically been hindered by challenges in determining appropriate dosing, administration strategies, and complications related to the production process. Recent advances in the production and scientific knowledge of recombinant NGF have enabled its clinical development, and in 2018, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved cenegermin-bkbj, a recombinant human NGF, for the treatment of all stages of neurotrophic keratitis. This review traces the evolutionary path that transformed NGF from a biological molecule into a novel therapy with potential research applications beyond the eye. Special emphasis is put on the studies that advanced NGF from discovery to the first medicinal product approved to treat a human disease.

“Envejecer en Cuba”: reflexiones desde la literatura, las artes visuales y la sociología

This research paper explores the portrayal of aging in Cuba through artistic and literary projects driven by social science, operating outside of Cuban official channels. The focus lies on the efforts of the “Cuido60: Observatory of Aging, Care, and Rights,” an initiative led by Cuban sociologist Elaine Acosta. Within this initiative, Acosta has organized literary and photography contests. The primary objective of this study is to analyze how these artistic endeavors capture the vulnerabilities and challenges faced by the elderly in Cuba, offering insights into the socio-economic decline and the disillusionment of a once-utopian aspiration.
 The themes of the body, aging, vulnerability, and illness are intricately woven into a comprehensive framework intertwined with migratory processes, neglect, and abandonment. In this contextual structure, family dynamics and adversities traverse the domains of politics and society. My aim is to underscore the extent to which these artistic projects facilitate discourse that extends beyond the confines of Cuban officialdom. This extension serves as a call for a set of policies that advocate for dignified aging in Cuba. Furthermore, can this intermedial language provide an alternative narrative regarding Alzheimer’s, memory loss, and vulnerability? Can it go beyond merely presenting these corporeal experiences and delve into their deeper implications? Guided by the works of philosophers such as Jean Améry, Simone de Beauvoir, Rita Levi-Montalcini, and Victoria Camps, this research seeks to unveil the multifaceted implications of these artistic expressions for the conversation surrounding aging in Cuba, its representation, and its broader societal significance.

Martina Letizia Contente

Martina Letizia Contente

Ten Women Who Changed Science and the World

Ten Women Who Changed Science and the World

The studies of Rita Levi-Montalcini on the effects of tumor transplantation on the chorioallantoic membrane.

In 1986, Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen were awarded with the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for the discovery of the nerve growth factor. Among the experimental models used by Levi-Montalcini in the first part of her studies it was the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane, currently used in the study of tumor growth and angiogenesis. Levi-Montalcini grafted fragments of mouse sarcomas on to the chorioallantoic membranes of 4- to 6-day chick embryos and demonstrated that the tumors infiltrated the host blood vessels. Moreover, the ganglia showed hypertrophy, nerve fibers reaching to the implanted tumors. Levi-Montalcini hypothesized that the effects could have been mediated by a soluble factor, which was later identified as the nerve growth factor.

In Memoriam: Beatrice Mintz, PhD (1921–2022)

In Memoriam: Beatrice Mintz, PhD (1921–2022)

Why Are We Scientists? Drawing Inspiration From Rita Levi-Montalcini.

In 2007, drawing inspiration from her previous experiments on chick embryos, Rita Levi-Montalcini, at the age of 98, proposed a new project, and a research group, in which I was included, was formed at the European Brain Research Institute (EBRI). Looking back on this experience, I can say that Professor Levi-Montalcini’s approach and the relationships she formed with my colleagues and me, contributed to my growth as a researcher. With her welcoming and warm-hearted disposition, she taught me how to consider other people’s ideas without prejudice, to reason and not to exclude any hypothesis. I also learned from her how to overcome those difficulties that are so frequent in the research field, always keeping in mind the starting point and looking toward the objective, with a factual optimism. I was just a young researcher and deeply flattered that a Nobel Laureate, with an incredible career and extraordinary life, treated me as her equal. My experience with Professor Levi-Montalcini has also provided me with a reliable path to follow, and when I encounter difficulties and challenges, I ask myself what would she have done. This approach has always helped me to move forward. Indeed, I believe the best way to celebrate Rita Levi-Montalcini as a woman in neuroscience is to recount how her exceptional example is a constant reminder as to why I have chosen to be a scientist. I hope she will always continue to be a source of inspiration for scientists in the future.

The Female Impact in the World of Neurodegeneration.

Scientific research fuels advances in medicine, but the contributions of individual scientists, especially women, are often underappreciated. The field of neuroscience is vast, with many important gaps in knowledge remaining; thus, it is imperative for women to be able to contribute. A pivotal 2018 study revealed that women were still shockingly underrepresented in academic neurology, representing only 30.8% of academic neurologists (McDermott et al., 2018). Of additional concern, this gender gap grows with increasing academic rank, with only 13.8% of neurology professors being women (McDermott et al., 2018). Although women have faced much adversity in the field of neuroscience, there have been pioneers who have paved a path for other women. Moreover, these women made important contributions that enhanced scientific understanding of neurodegeneration and neurodegenerative diseases. The purpose of this paper is to highlight notable, but underappreciated, female neuroscientists and their important contributions to modern understanding of neurodegeneration. Overview of Neurodegeneration The term neurodegeneration is a mixture of two words—“neuro”, which refers to nerve cells and then “degeneration”, which refers to progressive damage. The term in its entirety, “neurodegeneration”, can be used to describe various conditions that result in the loss of nerve structure and function. This deterioration of neural structures results in a loss of cognitive abilities such as memory and decision making (Murman, 2015). Loss of neural function is a key hallmark in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and many rare disorders (Przedborski et al., 2003). An important area of research is exploring the mechanisms that underlie neurodegeneration and plasticity; this includes investigation of proteins implicated in AD (e.g., tau; amyloid-beta) and Parkinson's (e.g., alpha-synuclein). Tau is a protein found in the brain that serves to stabilize microtubules (Gao et al., 2018); tau hyperphosphorylation results in its aggregation into insoluble tangles, a characteristic biomarker of AD. Another characteristic feature of AD is the aggregation of amyloid beta protein into extracellular deposits known as amyloid plaques (Bloom, 2014). Alpha-synuclein is a neuronal protein that normally regulates trafficking of synaptic vesicles for neurotransmitter release. If mutated, the once soluble protein aggregates into insoluble fibrils forming Lewy bodies, a hallmark feature of PD (Stefanis, 2012). Notably, there are currently no known therapies that can prevent or reverse neurodegeneration. Rather, for each particular disease, medications may be available that reduce symptom burden and improve quality of life. Ongoing research efforts focus on the similarities between neurodegenerative these diseases in the hope of 1 day finding a cure. In this manuscript, notable contributions of women to neurodegeneration research are highlighted. These contributions are vast and include discoveries about neuronal pathways, proteins, vascular effects on neurodegeneration, nerve growth factor, and novel imaging techniques. In total, 12 female neuroscientists are celebrated below, namely: Rita Levi-Montalcini, Valina L. Dawson, Eva-Maria Mandelkow, Tara Spires-Jones, Maria Grazia Spillantini, Miia K. Kivipelto, Vivian Tabar, Marian Diamond, Elizabeth Roboz-Einstein, Cecile Vogt-Mugnier, Patricia Goldman-Rakic, and Anita Harding. A timeline of select key advancements in neurodegeneration research is provided below (see Figure 1). Open in a separate window Figure 1 The above timeline outlines a few key events that contributed to knowledge of neurodegeneration. Some of the events shown are the first descriptions of neurodegenerative diseases, others are key discoveries regarding the mechanisms of neurodegeneration, one is a clinical trial.

Standing with giants: W.J. Whelan, a catalyst for international cooperation via the Miami Winter Symposium and the IUBMB

The Miami Winter Symposium, now in its fifth decade, appeared with various names in its early offerings. Dr. William J. Whelan, Professor and Chairman of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine started the Symposium in 1967 and continued to organize the annual meeting for many years. In 1983, I relocated from Vanderbilt University, where I was Professor of Biochemistry, to the University of Miami as Director of an interdepartmental research and clinical group, taking my primary faculty appointment in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Working with Dr. Whelan and others on the Organizing Committee for the 1986 Miami Winter Symposium, I recommended my friend and former colleague at Vanderbilt University, the late Dr. Stanley Cohen, for the Feodor Lynen Lecture. This proposal was met with enthusiasm by the Organizing Committee, as was the suggestion by Dr. Whelan that Drs. Herbert W. Boyer of the University of California at San Francisco and Stanley N. Cohen of Stanford University be co-recipients of the Symposium's Distinguished Service Award. It was a memorable meeting, and, when rummaging through some old files that somehow had survived laboratory and home moves, I found two poignant photographs taken at a 1986 Symposium reception. In Figure 1, I am shown with Drs. Whelan, Boyer, and Stanley N. Cohen, and Figure 2 captures Dr. Boyer flanked by the two Stanley Cohens. If I remember correctly, this was the first meeting of the Vanderbilt and the Stanford Stanley Cohens. Of note, the “Vanderbilt Stanley Cohen” is holding his signature corncob pipe. The work of Dr. Whelan and the three distinguished scientists honored at the 1986 Miami Winter Symposium was at the forefront in broadening the burgeoning field of biochemistry and extending it to include genetic engineering and molecular & cell biology. Their pioneering concepts and applications remain in wide use today. The impact of these four individuals on the life sciences and biomedicine has been immense, and over the years this foursome garnered many prestigious awards. To name but a few of these recognitions, Herbert Boyer, Stanley Cohen, and Stanley N. Cohen each received a National Medal of Science Award, and each was recognized with an Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research. In addition, Herbert Boyer was a co-founder of Genentech, a highly successful biotech company. The Vanderbilt Stanley Cohen received the Fred Conrad Koch Award of the Endocrine Society and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine the same year he gave the Feodor Lynen Lecture in Miami, the Nobel Prize being shared with his former collaborator, Dr. Rita Levi-Montalcini. Bill Whelan was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, was an honorary Member of the Royal College of Physicians of London, became a Fellow of the American Association of Academic Scientists, and received an honorary DSc. degree from La Trobe University, Australia. Complementing his leadership role in the annual Miami Winter Symposium and his original research on the importance of glycogenin as a primer for the initiation of glycogen synthesis, Bill was also effective in integrating biochemistry at the international level and serving as the founder and leading force of a number of biochemistry journals and societies. These accomplishments included: service as the first Editor-in-Chief of the FASEB Journal, BioEssays, and Trends in Biochemical Sciences; Founding Editor of FEBS Letters; Executive Editor of Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Editorial Board Member of the Biochemical Journal; cofounder and First Secretary General of FEBS and PAABS; General Secretary and President of the IUBMB; and founder and, along with Dr. Angelo Azzi, co-Editor-in-Chief of IUBMB Life, the latter being a position he held from 2000 to 2020.1 Without question, in addition to being an outstanding biochemist, Dr. Whelan was a quintessential catalyst in promoting not only biochemistry and the burgeoning field of molecular biology, but also the international cooperation of life scientists. Each of these biochemists and molecular biologists continued their groundbreaking research for many years following the 1986 Symposium. It was a pleasure for me, as a mid-career scientist, to have had the unique opportunity to be in the company of such accomplished individuals; indeed, these were an “awesome foursome.” The author declares no conflict of interest.

The Cellular Senescence Stress Response in Post-Mitotic Brain Cells: Cell Survival at the Expense of Tissue Degeneration.

In 1960, Rita Levi-Montalcini and Barbara Booker made an observation that transformed neuroscience: as neurons mature, they become apoptosis resistant. The following year Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead described a stable replicative arrest of cells in vitro, termed “senescence”. For nearly 60 years, the cell biology fields of neuroscience and senescence ran in parallel, each separately defining phenotypes and uncovering molecular mediators to explain the 1960s observations of their founding mothers and fathers, respectively. During this time neuroscientists have consistently observed the remarkable ability of neurons to survive. Despite residing in environments of chronic inflammation and degeneration, as occurs in numerous neurodegenerative diseases, often times the neurons with highest levels of pathology resist death. Similarly, cellular senescence (hereon referred to simply as “senescence”) now is recognized as a complex stress response that culminates with a change in cell fate. Instead of reacting to cellular/DNA damage by proliferation or apoptosis, senescent cells survive in a stable cell cycle arrest. Senescent cells simultaneously contribute to chronic tissue degeneration by secreting deleterious molecules that negatively impact surrounding cells. These fields have finally collided. Neuroscientists have begun applying concepts of senescence to the brain, including post-mitotic cells. This initially presented conceptual challenges to senescence cell biologists. Nonetheless, efforts to understand senescence in the context of brain aging and neurodegenerative disease and injury emerged and are advancing the field. The present review uses pre-defined criteria to evaluate evidence for post-mitotic brain cell senescence. A closer interaction between neuro and senescent cell biologists has potential to advance both disciplines and explain fundamental questions that have plagued their fields for decades.

The First and Last Time I Met Rita Levi-Montalcini: From the Insect Neurotrophic Factor to the Nerve Growth Factor Clinical Application : RLM and the Discovery of Two Neurotrophic Factors.

The neurotrophic factor nerve growth factor (NGF) has been discovered in the 1950s by Rita Levi-Montalcini, first in a neoplastic tissue and, later, in the mouse salivary gland (see 1A). Levi-Montalcini characterized its action in the sensory and sympathetic neurons (1B) and, a few years later, in central nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. Nerve growth factor plays its trophic role both during development and in adulthood, ensuring the maintenance of phenotypic and functional characteristic of several populations of neurons as well as immune cells. The aim of the present overview is to describe my personal scientific and human experiences working with Rita Levi-Montalcini for over 45years, first at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, searching (1) the invertebrate neurotrophic factor in the cockroaches and, later, at the Institute of Neurobiology of the National Research Council (CNR) in Rome studying (2) the role of NGF for various neuronal and non-neuronal functions; (3) the potential involvement of NGF in the pathobiology of human cutaneous, ocular, neurodegenerative, and cardiometabolic diseases; and finally (4) NGF potential clinical application.

Rita Levi-Montalcini, NGF Metabolism in Health and in the Alzheimer's Pathology.

This chapter relates biographic personal and scientific interactions with Rita Levi-Montalcini. It highlights research from our laboratory inspired by Rita's fundamental discovery. This workfromstudies on potentially neuro-reparative gangliosides, their interactions with NGF, the role of exogenous NGF in the recovery of degenerating cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain to the evidence that endogenous NGF maintains the "day-to-day" cortical synaptic phenotype and the discovery of a novel CNS "NGF metabolic pathway." This brain pathway's conceptual platform allowed the investigation of its status during the Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. This revealed a major compromise of the conversion of the NGF precursor molecule (proNGF) into the most biologically active molecule, mature NGF (mNGF). Furthermore, in this pathology, we found enhanced protein levels and enzymatic activity of the proteases responsible for the proteolytic degradation of mNGF. A biochemical prospect explaining the tropic factor vulnerability of the NGF-dependent basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and of their synaptic terminals. The NGF deregulation of this metabolic pathway is evident at preclinical stages and reflected in body fluid particularly in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The findings of a deregulation of the NGF metabolic pathway and its reflection in plasma and CSF are opening doors for the development of novel biomarkers for preclinical detection of AD pathology both in Alzheimer's and in Down syndrome (DS) with "silent" AD pathology.

A new season for experimental neuroembryology: The mysterious history of Marian Lydia Shorey

At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the landscape of emerging experimental embryology in the United States was dominated by the Canadian Frank Rattray Lillie, who combined his qualities as scientist and director with those of teacher at the University of Chicago. In the context of his research on chick development, he encouraged the young Marian Lydia Shorey to investigate the interactions between the central nervous system and the peripheral structures. The results were published in two papers which marked the beginning of a new branch of embryology, namely neuroembryology. These papers inspired ground-breaking enquiry by Viktor Hamburger which opened a new area of the research by Rita Levi-Montalcini, in turn leading to the discovery of the nerve growth factor, NGF.

The Legacy of Rita Levi-Montalcini: From Nerve Growth Factor to Neuroinflammation

Rita Levi-Montalcini was an extraordinary personality and with her profession she made a tremendous contribution to humanity. Doctor, Nobel laureate for medicine, neuroscientist, she contributed, thanks to her research, to improve the knowledge of the nervous system. She discovered the nerve growth factor, which is applied in various fields of neurology, concerning neurodegenerative diseases. She also studied, in relatively newer years, the mechanisms of neuroinflammation. This last is a research that has been developing in recent years and is based on the predominantly anti-inflammatory properties of endogenous substances that able to act not only on diseases of the nerves, neuropathies, on the nerve roots, and radiculopathies but also on migraine and other non-neurological diseases. Her long life was full of positive and negative events. Born in a Jewish family, she lived her life as a young woman through war, Nazi deportations, and the Holocaust. Despite the difficulties, she found time to do research in the medical field, organizing research laboratories with other scholars. She had a difficult life, interspread with pain, destruction, extermination of human beings but also rewarded by scientific discoveries. A “small” woman but a great neuroscientist.

Neurotrophins: evolution of concepts on rational therapeutic approaches.

Neurotrophins (NT) were "brought to life" by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen, thanks to their discovery of the nerve growth factor (NGF) isolated from the malignant tumor. A hint got from the cancer studies on the presence of NTs and other molecules like metalloproteases, which control neuronal remodeling and extracellular matrix in tumors, was the stimulus to investigate the role of these molecules in physiology and post-lesion plasticity of the nervous system. NTs have long been identified as drivers of neurogenesis during development and regeneration of the nervous system. Thousands of investigations spanned from early sixties till now provided strong evidence that this small family of molecules is indispensable for central and peripheral nervous system maintenance throughout the whole life of different animal species. In mammals NTs regulate sensation, movement, behavior, and cognition. A problem, which accompanies the majority of experimental therapies using NTs following injury of the nervous system, stems from unspecific and uncontrolled stimulation of the whole circuitry of preserved neurons. Among the already identified causes of clinical trial failure with the use of NT therapy in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases are: (1) disregarding neuronal preferences to selected NTs; (2) poor knowledge on NT pharmacokinetics (3) uncontrolled spread of NTs when administered systemically, which could have unpredictable effects on other than intended neuronal populations (4) limitations of tissue penetration of some NTs (5) disturbances of the balance between signal transmission through their Trk and LNGTR receptors. I present our contribution to the field and efforts to control spatially and temporally postinjury NT signaling.

Rita Levi-Montalcini and her major contribution to neurobiology

In this paper, I shall illustrate the personality of Rita Levi-Montalcini and highlight how she first emerged within a prestigious school, while under the direction of Giuseppe Levi, a most inspiring and stimulating figure. Between 1919 and 1938, he created a rich environment capable of influencing the minds of innumerable students; among them, three future Nobel Prize winners, Renato Dulbecco, Salvador Luria, and Rita Levi-Montalcini, who were companions in the same classroom. In 1938, due to the racial laws for the defence of the race, Luria and Levi-Montalcini were banned from entering the university premises. In a small working space in her bedroom—“a minuscule laboratory not unlike a convent cell”—Levi-Montalcini, supported by Levi, made a most outstanding discovery that opened a new chapter in neurobiology. Further collaborations with Viktor Hamburger and Stanley Cohen led Levi-Montalcini to the discovery of the nerve growth factor (NGF): a remarkable accomplishment which turned out to represent a milestone in the development of modern cell biology.

Offline: Medicines leadership—Britain's loss, Europe's gain

The shadow of Brexit continues to darken. One consequence is the loss of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) from London to continental Europe. The EMA, together with the European Banking Authority (EBA), is one of the prized institutions of the European Union. It is responsible for evaluating medicines use across 28 member states. It provides a single route for the authorisation of new medicines, avoiding the duplication of separate member-state approvals. Since its inception in 1995, the EMA has authorised over 1000 products. It employs 900 staff, and attracts 36 000 experts each year, including 4000 non-EU visitors. It holds more than 500 meetings annually. The concentration of medicines expertise in the UK brings many additional benefits. The EMA enhances Britain's reputation as a scientific centre for drug discovery. It expands the nation's capacity in medicines research—from the epidemiology of drug safety to randomised trials to assess the efficacy of new medicines. And it strengthens the country's global leadership role in medicines regulation. All that will now be lost to Britain. The deadline for applications to host the EMA is July 31, 2017. An early leader was Milan. Italy has a distinguished reputation in basic science (consider, for example, the international standing of the Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research). It has built formidable clinical trial networks (eg, the GISSI studies into survival after myocardial infarction). And Italy has produced some of the most creative life scientists of modern times, from Rita Levi-Montalcini (who discovered nerve growth factor; Nobel laureate, 1986) to Mario Capecchi (who pioneered the use of knockout mice; Nobel laureate, 2007). Italian clinical scientists have made important contributions to medicines regulation. Silvio Garattini, who co-founded the Mario Negri Institute, was one of the most radically engaged members of the EMA's Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products. But the prospect of attracting such a jewel in the European crown has inevitably led to a rush of competitors. 16 countries have declared an interest in hosting the EMA. The slew of cities in the running is a compendium of European urban chic—Amsterdam, Barcelona, Copenhagen, Dublin, Lille, Lisbon, and Stockholm. But there is a contender that could beat all of these candidates: Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia. In February, Slovakia's Minister of Foreign and European Affairs indicated that his country had “ambitions to host the EMA”. In April, Prime Minister Fico wrote to the Presidents of the European Council (Donald Tusk) and European Commission (Jean-Claude Juncker) to notify them formally of Bratislava's application. Slovakia is the only country from central Europe not to host a European institution. But how will this decision be made? The new EMA has to be up and running by April 1, 2019. On June 22, the EU published its “Procedure leading up to a decision on the relocation of the European Medicines Agency and the European Banking Authority.” It set out six criteria. First, “The assurance that the agency can be set up on site and take up its functions at the date of the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the Union”. Second, “The accessibility of the location”. Third, “The existence of adequate education facilities for the children of agency staff”. Fourth, “Appropriate access to the labour market, social security, and medical care for both children and spouses”. Fifth, “Business continuity”. And finally, “Geographical spread”. The European Commission will publish an analysis of candidate cities in September. A debate will follow in October, with a vote in November. But the decision will not be technical. It will be political. There is already strong suspicion that a deal has been struck. Could it be true, for example, that Angela Merkel has agreed to support Bratislava in return for the EBA being housed in Frankfurt? There is, perhaps, one further consideration. Italy has been on the front-line of humanitarian efforts to help the tens of thousands of refugees flowing into Europe. It has done so with compassion and commitment, while many EU nations have refused to offer comparable assistance. Prime Minister Fico has said that, “Islam has no place in Slovakia”. The Slovakian Government has taken legal action to block the EU's refugee quotas for the country. It would be scandalous for the EU to reward Slovakia with the EMA given its racist immigration policies. Italy deserves more serious consideration, on moral as well as medical grounds.

Human Body as a Multicrine System, with Special Reference to Cell Protein Secretion: from Vascular Smooth Muscles to Adipose Tissue

Magister dixit (Teacher said), used by Pythagoras` students, expresses a respect to the Teacher. Socrates was the Teacher of Plato, Plato of Aristotle, Rita Levi-Montalcini of Luigi Aloe, Harry Jellinek of Anna Kadar, Albert Claude of George Palade, George Palade of GA¼nter Blobel and of many cell biologists worldwide...

The Courage of Hippocrates Journey of a Neurosurgeon in Discovering Spinal Cord Injury and Therapy Inspired by Rita Levi-Montalcini

The Courage of Hippocrates Journey of a Neurosurgeon in Discovering Spinal Cord Injury and Therapy Inspired by Rita Levi-Montalcini