Risky Shift Phenomenon Research Articles

Significance of Location Based Service Applications in Smartphones Using GPS and Web Service

Earlier smartphones came with fewer functions but Location Based Service (LBS) were confined to simple GPS tracking device. But today, advance wireless communication system provided current smartphones with GPS service and cheaper data service fees. Apparently, LBS applications are emerging technology solutions for most businesses to connect millions of customers within close proximity. However, many e-commerce websites today are still operating without location-based service to easily connect buyers and sellers in the same locality. Nevertheless, the growth of LBS technology and LBS market have raised privacy concerns due to potential abuse of location information. This study aims to highlight the significance of location-based service and how it helped tech companies to drive significant revenue growth. It equally validates the research model focusing on privacy concern as moderator of post adoptive behavior associated with location-based applications. We used risky shift phenomenon research method to conduct an online survey using Google docs on 500 businesses. The study tends to test the effects of major variables Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) on LBS usage intention and actual use. We also test the hypothesis on post adoptive behaviorusing risky shift phenomenon research on over66 users of LBS application. The research findings support the hypothesis of moderating effect of privacy concern on performance expectancy and continuous usage is strong.

Replicating Studies in Which Samples of Participants Respond to Samples of Stimuli

In a direct replication, the typical goal is to reproduce a prior experimental result with a new but comparable sample of participants in a high-powered replication study. Often in psychology, the research to be replicated involves a sample of participants responding to a sample of stimuli. In replicating such studies, we argue that the same criteria should be used in sampling stimuli as are used in sampling participants. Namely, a new but comparable sample of stimuli should be used to ensure that the original results are not due to idiosyncrasies of the original stimulus sample, and the stimulus sample must often be enlarged to ensure high statistical power. In support of the latter point, we discuss the fact that in experiments involving samples of stimuli, statistical power typically does not approach 1 as the number of participants goes to infinity. As an example of the importance of sampling new stimuli, we discuss the bygone literature on the risky shift phenomenon, which was almost entirely based on a single stimulus sample that was later discovered to be highly unrepresentative. We discuss the use of both resampled and expanded stimulus sets, that is, stimulus samples that include the original stimuli plus new stimuli.

Replicating Studies in Which Samples of Participants Respond to Samples of Stimuli

In a direct replication, the typical goal is to reproduce a prior experimental result with a new, but comparable sample of participants in a high-powered replication study. Often in psychology, research to be replicated involves a sample of participants responding to a sample of stimuli. In replicating such studies, we argue that the same criteria should be used in sampling stimuli as are used in sampling participants. Namely, a new, but comparable sample of stimuli should be used to ensure that the original results are not due to idiosyncrasies of the original stimulus sample, and the stimulus sample must often be enlarged to ensure high statistical power. In support of the latter point, we discuss the fact that in experiments involving samples of stimuli, statistical power typically does not approach unity as the number of participants goes to infinity. As an example of the importance of sampling new stimuli, we discuss the bygone literature on the risky shift phenomenon, which was almost entirely based on a single stimulus sample that was later discovered to be highly unrepresentative. We discuss the use of both resampled and expanded stimulus sets, that is, stimulus samples that include the original stimuli plus new stimuli.

The Impact of Banality, Risky Shift and Escalating Commitment on Ethical Decision Making

This paper posits that organizational variables are the factors that lead to the moral decline of companies like Enron and Worldcom. The individuals involved created environments within the organizations that precipitated a spiral of unethical decision-making. It is proposed that at the executive level, it is the organizational factors associated with “power” and decision-making that have the critical influence on moral and ethical behavior. The study has used variables that were deemed to be surrogate measures of the ethical violations (OSHA and EPA violations), the risky shift phenomenon (executive team size), banality of wrong-doing (reputation score for firms) and escalating commitment (tenure with the firm/change in revenue for declining firms). The research found that there were small correlations between ethical violations and the three organizational variables.

Characteristics of Clients of Full-Service and Discount Brokerage Firms

Two-group discriminant analysis was used to determine what differences, if any, exist between clients of full-service and discount brokerage firms. Results suggest that a number of demographic and attitudinal variables are the key predictors of such differences. In addition, there is evidence lo indicate chat the risky shift phenomenon provides a plausible theoretical explanation for satisfaction ratings. The marketing implications of these findings are discussed.

Group versus individual gambling behavior: Reexamination and limitation

An experiment was performed involving 120 subjects who had to choose among bets as individual persons and in three-person and five-person group systems. Contrary to some earlier research, a risky shift between individuals and groups was found only with respect to the probability selections, not with respect to stake selections, regardless of the sequence in which subjects were exposed to the individual and group situations. No significant difference existed between three-person and five-person group systems in both risk dimensions, but both individuals and groups took a significantly higher risk in selecting stakes than in selecting probabilities. All choices made by both individual persons and groups were independent of past experience. Despite the fact that group members were not obliged to reach any predetermined agreement level, all groups reached an unanimous decision. These findings cast further doubt on the generality of the risky shift phenomenon, suggesting that it is situational-specific.

Group Polarization in a Non-Risk-Taking Culture

Issues concerning the significance of the risky-shift phenomenon have recently been raised. One argument treats the phenomenon as an instance of a more general finding of group polarization. Experimentation in an African culture was conducted to shed light on these questions as well as on an earlier posed explanation of the risky-shift as being attributed to cultural values. Liberian high school students participated in the experiment which used original and culturally apt choice-dilemmas. Results supported the idea of group polarization and not the risky-shift. Differences were not found among groups of different sexual composition nor in taking risks for oneself compared to others.

Effects of Skewness of Initial Choices on the Risky Shift: An Experimental Test with the Use of Consumer Stimuli

The hypothesis that the risky shift phenomenon can be accounted for by skewed distributions of the subjects' initial risk-taking choices was investigated with the use of consumer stimuli. Skewness, manipulated in four experimental conditions, significantly affected group decisions and shifts. However, contrary to a majority-rule interpretation, significant cautious shifts did not occur when the distributions were negatively skewed.

RISKY SHIFT AND CREATIVITY

A review of the literature led to the hypothesis that there could be a relationship between risk-taking and creativity. To test this hypothesis, 10 groups of four undergraduates were administered the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire and a subtest of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. This was followed by the standard group process noted to result in a risky shift. After the group process, the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire and an alternate Torrance subtest were readministered. Eleven groups of four undergraduates (the assignments to groups and the assignments to treatments made on a random basis) received the same administrations of the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire and the Torrance tests but had a relaxation period interposed between administrations rather than the group process.The experimental groups increased their risk-taking scores in a statistically significant way, indicating that the risky shift phenomenon had occurred. Concomitantly, the experimental groups' flexibility and originality scores increased significantly, while their elaboration scores decreased at statistically significant levels. No changes were noted on fluency. The control groups showed no significant changes in either the risk-taking scores or any of the four creativity scores. Evidently, increasing the likelihood of taking risks via the risky shift also influences creative responding.

Probability, personality, age, and risk taking.

Male and female college (n=22) and high school (n=18) students were presented information concerning probability and were also measured on the personality variables of independence of judgment, response set, Machiavellianism, and open-mindedness. An investigation of the risky shift phenomenon revealed that an understanding of probability did not vitiate the shift toward greater risk. Age was shown to be functionally related to risk taking, the teen years showing greater proclivity for risk than later years. Independence of judgment emerged as a powerful predictor of initial risk; Machiavelianism bore no relationship to risk taking. Both of these findings concerning personality variables were at odds with earlier work. An interpretation of contextual interaction was advanced as a possible explanation.

Is There a Generalized Risky Shift Phenomenon in Consumer Behavior?

Is There a Generalized Risky Shift Phenomenon in Consumer Behavior?

Is There a Generalized Risky Shift Phenomenon in Consumer Behavior?

Is There a Generalized Risky Shift Phenomenon in Consumer Behavior?

The Effect of Underlying Situational Characteristics on the Risky Shift Phenomenon

The Effect of Underlying Situational Characteristics on the Risky Shift Phenomenon

Risky Shift in Marketing Decision Making: A Nonconfirmation

Choice-dilemma items and a marketing case-study task were administered to 48 MBA candidates at the University of Texas in a test of the risky-shift phenomenon. Using consensus decisions, groups were more risk-oriented than the individuals comprising them in the instance of the choice-dilemma items, but not when a familiar, realistic task was performed. Hence, it is necessary to use caution when attempting to generalize the risky shift to decision-making situations that use more realistic measures of risk than those represented by the standard choice-dilemma instrument.

Risk-taking in cooperative and competitive dyads

An individual's decision to cooperate or to compete, and the antecedents and consequences of that choice, continue to occupy the attention of social theorists, researchers, and policy makers. Despite this concern, many questions about the quality of decisions emerging from cooperative and competitive relationships remain unanswered. One of these questions, surprisingly neglected by researchers, is whether or not cooperation and competition differentially influence risk-taking. The present study represented an initial attempt at providing an answer by exploring the effects of cooperation-competition upon the riskiness of decisions made by members of a dyad. The dyads observed in this study consisted of friends who chose either to cooperate or to compete in playing a carnival game. Was there any reason to expect that more risk would be taken under one than under the other condition? Kogan and Wallach (1967) have accounted for the risky shift phenomenon (the greater tendency toward risk among groups than

Small-group polarization of judgments

The polarizing effect of group discussion was tested with single-cue and multiple-cue risk-free stimuli. As predicted, ratings by groups were more extreme than ratings by individuals when judgments were based upon favorable or unfavorable information cues, but not when ratings were based upon neutral information cues. It was suggested that if group judgments are more extreme than individual judgments on both risk-free and risk-salient stimuli, then it might be advantageous to treat the “;risky shift phenomenon”; as a special subcase of a more general phenomenon.

A critical analysis of the “risky shift” phenomenon

In recent years a substantial body of research findings (based almost solely on responses to the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument as the measure of risk), commonly referred to as the “risky shift” phenomenon, has suggested that groups take greater risks than individuals. This interpretation, if generalizable, would replace the commonly held belief that groups make decisions that are more conservative than, or the average of, individual decisions. This paper examines, empirically and analytically, some major limitations of the generalizability of the risky shift phenomenon. The major concerns of this paper are analysis of (1) the conventional method of statistically analyzing the data generated in risky shift studies, and (2) the measure of risk almost universally used by investigators of the risky shift phenomenon. In order to accomplish this task several experiments were designed. The conventional statistic used in the risky shift literature is analyzed and inferences appropriate to it are explored. The conventional test supports the risky shift findings. A revised measurement scale and alternative statistical testing procedures are discussed. The revised scale permits a continuum of response rather than the discrete choices permitted with the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument. Results using the alternative methods of statistical analysis and the revised scale are presented. These results do not support the previous findings that groups accept a level of risk significantly greater than that acceptable to the average group member deciding alone. These findings strongly suggest that generalization of the risky shift phenomenon may be limited to individuals and groups using the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument as the measure of risk.

Risky-shift phenomenon tested with consumer products as stimuli.

Risky-shift phenomenon tested with consumer products as stimuli.

Risky shift as a function of group members' value of risk and need for approval.

Eighty-eight female subjects were assigned to dyads homogeneously composed with regard to their valuation of risk acceptance (low or high) as well as their need for approval (Iow or high). The dyads discussed each of a set of hypothetical decision situations involving risk taking and, at the end of each discussion l indicated the risk levels acceptable for them. High-value dyads shifted significantly more toward risk, relative to their prior decisions (2 X 2 analysis of variance). As intended, the study demonstrates that risk as a value plays a causal role in the group risky-shift effect. Other results are brought to bear on the parsimony of recent formulations of the value of risky shift. Value theory explains the group riskyshift phenomenon as a consequence of the positive value typically placed on risk acceptance, in conjunction with group discussion as a vehicle for attaining the value (Brown, 1965).3 Levinger and Schneider (1969) have shown the first supposition-that risk is a value-to be true. When asked about the level of risk acceptance that they considered as most admirable, college students indicated higher levels of risk than they had accepted in their own previous decisions. (It was anticipated that the same would be found in the present study.) Additional support comes from a study by Madaras and Bern (1968), who found more positive evaluations (ratings) being made of risk-accepting than of cautious

Group Risk Taking and Internal-External Control of Group Members

Group risk taking was investigated as a function of the internal-external control level of group members. Using an experimental paradigm of Kogan and Wallach, it was predicted that groups composed of external Ss would manifest a greater risky shift and would reach group consensus in significantly less time than groups of internal Ss. The results demonstrated the risky-shift phenomenon for each group type and indicated that female groups reached consensus significantly faster than male groups. However, the predictions relating internal-external control to group risk taking were not supported.