Risk Reduction Policies Research Articles

Variability in youth coach concussion education requirements across states.

Youth sports coaches play a critical role in proper concussion recognition and management, reinforcing the need for coach concussion education. As of 2021, most states have statutory and policy measures mandating concussion education for coaches. In practice, these mandates have been enacted through state legislatures and their respective youth sport governing bodies. Prior studies have found significant variations in the contents of state-level concussion risk reduction policies and have raised questions about their specificity. To expand on previous analyses to provide an overview of youth sports coach concussion education, highlighting variations in state policies and discrepancies between state mandates and youth sport governing bodies. This report utilized qualitative content analysis to characterize and compare U.S. state and governing body concussion education requirements for youth sport coaches. State concussion statutes were identified via the National Conference of State Legislatures and Open States databases, and governing body handbooks/bylaws were obtained via their websites. Two researchers independently coded the policies, and discrepancies were resolved through consensus meetings with additional youth traumatic brain injury experts. We found significant variability in educational requirements and their implementation. A majority (68%; n = 34) of states require the completion of concussion education training for coaches. Notably, many states designate responsibility for enforcement and implementation of provisions to another party but just four state statutes delineate explicit consequences for noncompliance. Additionally, only 12 state statutes extend mandates to noninterscholastic sports, limiting their reach. In most cases, independent sanctioning authorities implement more stringent policies than the minimum acceptable standard established by state law. Our findings provide a coded data set of youth coach concussion laws and independent sanctioning authority guidelines that can be used in future research efforts. Further research investigating a relationship between the strength of coach concussion education policies and relevant youth and adolescent concussion-related metrics is required.

Integrated understanding of climate change and disaster risk for building resilience of cultural heritage sites

AbstractHeritage assets are vulnerable to climate change and disaster risks. However, existing literature has long been separating climate change from disaster risks, which were mainly considered as natural disasters. Recently, the framework of integrated understanding of climate change and disaster risk reduction in international policies started to be discussed in sustainable development discussion, while mentioning opportunities to build resilience of cultural heritage sites (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2020). But this framework is yet to be implemented and detailed in the context of heritage sites. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze how the integrated understanding of climate change and disaster risk reduction policies can contribute to building climate resilience of cultural heritage sites by reviewing the key themes emerging from the literature. The question this paper answers are how can the integrated understanding of climate change and disaster risks reduction tackle barriers to the resilience of heritage sites? And what can be done to fill the gaps identified in the literature? To understand it, four elements from the literature are analyzed, including methodological contributions, temporalities, challenges and gaps, and opportunities. The findings of this review help in understanding the gap and interplay between science and policy in decision-making processes. We conclude by discussing the ways forward for the applicability of the framework in building resilience of cultural heritage sites.

Social learning and collective action in flood-hazard management in Manitoba, Canada

ABSTRACT Knowledge of social learning about flood hazards in the literature, especially regarding its transformation into collective action for risk reduction, is very limited. This study addresses these gaps by developing an integrated framework that describes how social learning is transformed into collective action – particularly the underlying components and processes – and then applying it to empirical case studies of two communities, (namely, St. Adolphe and St. Agathe) of the Rural Municipality of Ritchot, Manitoba, Canada. Primary data were collected during the summer months of 2022 using participatory research appraisal (PRA) tools (i.e. key informant interviews and oral histories), while secondary data were collected primarily via government and NGO sources. The findings revealed that a) the flood experience and related interactions among community members and local institutions produced unique and distinct types of social learning, and b) that local and multilevel institutions had helped to create learning platforms that facilitated the formation of strategies for collective action related to flood risk reduction. These processes resulted in single – and double-loop learning at the community level. Based on the findings of this work, we recommend that learning and reflection relating to community members’ flood experiences be integrated into disaster risk reduction and management policies.

A multi-dimensional framework for assessing disaster recovery pathways: Lessons and experiences from Germany and Nigeria

The recent global surge in extreme events is escalating, leading to intensified impacts on lives, livelihoods, and overall well-being with long-lasting effects. As a result, communities in exposed regions with limited adaptive capacity find themselves in modes of constant recovery. However, disaster recovery is often treated as a secondary concern within global disaster risk reduction policies and practices. Previous studies have primarily focused on recovering people, places, and processes, neglecting a comprehensive examination of the relationships between actors, institutions, and decision-making across different time horizons. This paper aims to address this gap by introducing the concept of disaster recovery pathways and presenting a multidimensional framework for assessing these pathways. The framework comprises four interconnected components: systems, community capacity, actors relationships, and institutions. To develop this framework, we first review existing frameworks on disaster recovery and identify their limitations. We then apply the new framework to Ahr Valley in Germany and Lagos in Nigeria through policy document analysis and in-depth interviews with stakeholders. Our findings reveal that both countries face challenges in achieving a truly sustainable and resilient recovery. Financial constraints, political polarization, and administrative factors often serve as barriers to "build back better," and immediate relief and reconstruction efforts frequently prioritize innovative and sustainable practices in the recovery process. Our findings underscore the importance of collaboration, trust, and communication among stakeholders in driving effective recovery pathways efforts. We conclude that disaster recovery pathways encompass not only the reconstruction of physical infrastructure but also social, economic, psychological, environmental, and governance dimensions.

Integrated assessment of geophysical and social vulnerability to natural hazards in North-East Region, Romania

The multidisciplinary approach outlined in this paper aims to assess the correlation between geophysical and social vulnerability for disaster risk reduction. To achieve this, two multi-criteria methods based on Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques have been integrated to assess the risk to natural hazards in the North-East Development Region. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was utilized to conduct a comprehensive hazard analysis, including floods, landslides, and earthquakes. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method was applied to examine the spatial distribution of social vulnerability at the Local Administrative Unit (LAU level), utilizing 24 variables to generate 6 principal components. Based on these results a Regional Risk Index (RRI) was developed using the bivariate method, combining the multi-hazard distribution with social vulnerability. The results showed that the north-eastern part of the region presents the highest risk, encompassing 10.68% of administrative units. These results can contribute to the design of risk reduction programs and policies.

Enhancing equity of the post-disaster recovery governance through community data generation

Climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction policy frameworks emphasize the importance of engaging vulnerable communities in data creation and utilization to enhance resilience. Yet, empirical evidence on how capacity strengthening and community data generation can improve post-disaster recovery processes remains limited. To address this gap, this article investigates the post-disaster recovery process in the El Pacífico self-built neighborhood, located at the hillslopes of the rural-urban border of Medellín, Colombia. Utilizing participatory action research and documentation analysis, we examined documents related to the response and recovery committee (called “Mesa de Atención y Recuperación”) established following a severe flooding event. Our analysis reveals a lack of clearly defined procedures for engaging affected communities in the post-disaster efforts. However, we provide evidence that initiatives promoting equitable governance through capacity strengthening and community data generation, supported by our project, have effectively empowered community members, amplifying their voices in the negotiation with municipal authorities. These findings offer valuable insights that can inform more equitable future policies and practices in disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation with increased recognition and representation of marginalized urban residents.

Assessing volcanic hazard and exposure in a data poor context: Case study for Ethiopia, Kenya, and Cabo Verde

Volcanoes produce a wide variety of hazards across varying spatial and temporal scales. When data are scarce on past eruptions and hazards, it can falsely imply low hazard recurrence and create challenges for robust hazard and risk assessment. Data quality and quantity vary considerably across different regions, volcanoes, and eruptions. Yet, there is a need for regional to global scale information on volcanic hazard and risk, where consistent and reproducible methods are applied. Such information is used by international stakeholders to inform funding priorities, risk reduction policies, and to highlight data and knowledge gaps, contributing towards the Sendai Framework's Sustainable Development Goals. Challenges in gathering this information can be most problematic where large populations are exposed to potential volcanic hazards but there are few comprehensive eruptive histories, as in sub-Saharan Africa. Here, we present a unique study to evaluate hazard and exposure for nine volcanoes in Ethiopia, Kenya and Cabo Verde, as part of an international project to develop multi-hazard Disaster Risk Country Profiles. We applied a two-stage expert elicitation process to volcanoes for the first time, and coupled the results with vent mapping, numerical hazard modelling, and GIS analysis of eight exposure categories to identify where high volcanic hazard and exposure coincide. Testing the sensitivity of our findings to input assumptions, to better understand where uncertainties lay, showed that improving our knowledge of past eruption volumes, frequencies, and dates was key to reducing uncertainty. Expert elicitations proposed that Fogo, Cabo Verde, is the most likely to erupt (eruption on average every 25 years), while Fentale (Ethiopia), Longonot and Suswa (Kenya) were elicited to have the greatest probability for a large explosive (VEI ≥ 4) eruption (on average every 400 years). Menengai and Longonot produce the larger exposure values across most VEI scenarios and categories of exposure, but population and GDP exposure was also large for more distal tephra fall and flows at Corbetti and Suswa, with order of magnitude increases expected between 2010 estimates and 2050 projections. Potentially high impact scenarios include tephra being dispersed across large cities (e.g. Nairobi, 55 km from Suswa) and key infrastructure (e.g. geothermal power station ∼2.5 km from Aluto), as well as important tourist destinations, seats of government and emergency management operations (e.g. islands east of Fogo). This study provided the first hazard and exposure assessment of its kind for these volcanoes and drew attention to volcanic risk at the levels required to inform policy and future in-country funding opportunities.

Vulnerability of elderly people during climate-induced disasters in Sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review

Climate-induced disasters present significant challenges to vulnerable populations, especially elderly individuals with disabilities who face unique difficulties in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from such catastrophic events. Despite growing concerns about the impact of climate-induced disasters in sub-Saharan Africa, there is a notable lack of information regarding the specific vulnerabilities experienced by elderly people with disabilities in this region. This study aims to address this gap by identifying and synthesizing the existing literature on the subject. Researchers conducted a scoping review, selecting articles from regional (Sabinet African Journals, Science Direct) and global databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest) using search strategies with Boolean operators, truncations, and MeSH terms. The review included primary studies (qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods) published between 2013 and 2023 that met specified inclusion and exclusion criteria, with a focus on assessing the quality of the included studies. The findings revealed that elderly people in sub-Saharan Africa face significant physical, cognitive, and socio-economic challenges due to limited access to resources, inadequate infrastructure, and social exclusion. These challenges are amplified in the sub-Saharan context, highlighting a critical gap in inclusive risk reduction strategies during disasters. The review emphasizes an urgent need for targeted research and the development of community-based intervention programmes to improve the resilience and wellbeing of elderly individuals with disabilities facing climate-induced disasters. This study not only mapped the existing literature but also underscored the scarcity of research in the field of climate-induced disasters, with only six articles focusing on the elderly. The researchers recommend the development of more inclusive disaster risk reduction strategies and policies.

How a poverty alleviation policy affected comprehensive disaster risk reduction capacity: Evidence from China's great western development policy

Although it is well established that natural disasters of all kinds give rise to poverty, and poverty deteriorates the disaster loss, few studies have empirically proposed a comprehensive framework to break down the vicious circle. Our study proposed that poverty alleviation policy with governmental accountability can give rise to socio-economic development, and can facilitate the implementation of disaster risk reduction policy. Focusing on the Great Western Development (GWD) policy, our study conducted an index of comprehensive disaster risk reduction and used regression discontinuity design to explore the effect of poverty alleviation policy on the index. Ultimately, the results of regression discontinuity design demonstrated that there was a noticeable jump effect in the index of comprehensive disaster risk reduction from non-targeted regions to policy-targeted regions, namely, anti-poverty policy had a positive effect on disaster risk reduction. Our study highlighted that the primary focus of GWD has been on considerable public investments to improve basic infrastructure, which can directly increase the comprehensive capacity of disaster risk reduction. Hence, disaster risk reduction should be a priority initiative of poverty alleviation policy to break down the vicious “poverty-natural disaster” circle.

Human losses due to climate-related disasters: an urgent call for quality control

Abstract Missing data in climate impact databases are a source of major bias in disaster impact analyses and can mislead policy making. EMDAT, an international reference data source on disaster impacts, is often used without much quality control or consideration of data gaps. Ignoring these gaps undermines both the evaluation of disaster risk management activities and the evidence base for global policies for early warnings and disaster risk reduction. EMDAT, considered a key data source on climate extremes and their human impacts, records casualty information for only one in three climatological disasters. In this study, we provide insights into the missing data, highlighting the importance of data quality control to account for bias. Understanding where and why data is missing provides insights into whether trends can be attributed to true progress in disaster risk reduction or are merely statistical artifacts. We also underline the pressing need for harmonization across other databases that are relevant for measuring the human impact of climate disasters and suggest new technologies to fill gaps. As major resource investments were requested during COP 28 (2023) to attenuate the impact of future disasters, more complete and convincing data on climate disasters and human impacts will be needed to better identify the efficiency of countermeasures.

Mainstreaming ecosystem-based approaches into disaster risk reduction policies: a comparative study of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh

Humanity faces a rising number of challenging disasters due to their increasing unpredictability and scale. While large-scale engineering solutions have been the mainstream approach, there is a growing acknowledgment that ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR) is a suitable approach in the long term due to its cost-effectiveness, social equity, and environmental sustainability. Governments worldwide are integrating Eco-DRR into policies and legislation. Here, we review the extent of integration of Eco-DRR into DRR policies and legislation in Nepal, India, and Bangladesh using content analysis based on five criteria: acknowledgment, inclusion, weighting, resources, and reflexivity. While Eco-DRR principles are acknowledged and included in the national policies of these three countries, they are not prioritized as compared to competing alternatives due to limited integration tools. Resource allocation is directed towards prevention and relief mitigation, with limited emphasis on research and capacity building, which are crucial for strengthening Eco-DRR. Notably, policy aspirations still need to be realized in legislative action. Strengthening Eco-DRR requires enhanced integration, capacity-building, and robust institutions to boost resilience.

Identification of Coastal Typology and Utilization of Geospatial Technology for Tsunami Hazard Modeling in Kulon Progo Coastal Area, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract Tsunamis are natural disasters that cause material losses and cause loss of life. Tsunamis are generated by underwater earthquakes. The coastal region of Kulon Progo is prone to the risk of a tsunami disaster due to its proximity to the megathrust zone and direct exposure to the Indian Ocean. This research aims to (1) determining the typological characteristics in the Kulon Progo Coastal Area, Special Region of Yogyakarta; (2) determining the spatial distribution of tsunami hazards in the Kulon Progo Coastal Area, Special Region of Yogyakarta; (3) developing recommendations for tsunami disaster mitigation models in the coastal area of Kulon Progo, special region of Yogyakarta. The method used in this research is the Hloss calculation developed by Berryman-2006. Furthermore, the identification of coastal typology was carried out according to Shepard with field observations, which were taken based on the Identification of Coastal Geomorphology according to Khakhim-2008. The research results show that tsunami inundation modeling with scenarios of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 meters inundated the entire area with 14,462.22 hectares. It is known that the identification of the Kulon Progo coastal typology is marine deposition coast and coast built by organisms. Suitable recommendations for tsunami disaster mitigation on the Kulon Progo coast are the application of green belts around the coastline and the constructing of breakwaters. The results of this research can be used as a basis for determining tsunami disaster risk reduction policies in the coastal area of Kulon Progo, Special Region of Yogyakarta.

Climate-related Disaster and Human Capital Investment in the Global South — Household Heterogeneity and Growth

This study develops a dynamic model of climate-related disaster impacts, considering multidimensional household heterogeneity, for analyzing changes in growth and inequality in low-income countries. Focusing on human capital development, the study demonstrates the multiple impacts of disaster risk reduction (DRR) policies on human capital investment, including the effect of schooling opportunities for households constrained by the subsistence consumption constraint. Through numerical simulations performed for two economies that differ in terms of human capital, modeled after Madagascar and Fiji, it is illustrated that the possibilities of involuntary unemployment and the work-learning choice drive the diversity in macroeconomic impacts of a disaster. In an economy characterized by low levels of human capital, a disaster could cause an increase in labor supply in the immediate aftermath but interrupt human capital formation, impeding long-term growth and human capital formation. Such a result contradicts prevailing intuition by demonstrating that a disaster occurring in an economy under recession may not result in a large adverse GDP impact in the short run but may negatively impact growth in the long run. On such a path, a policy of development in DRR infrastructure with appropriate taxation could reduce human-capital gaps in the long run by supporting continued post-disaster human-capital-investment opportunities for the poor.

Pathways of multi-hazard post-disaster housing reconstruction among Ivatan Indigenous households

Most disaster-affected populations face the complex task of reconstructing their dwellings with minimal or no external support. However, not much is known about the self-initiated reconstruction pathways of households, especially among Indigenous groups needing to address the competing impacts of multiple hazards. We conducted a case study analysis based in Itbayat, Batanes in the Philippines to understand the housing reconstruction trajectories of the Ivatan Indigenous households after the 2019 earthquakes that redefined their typhoon-resilient construction practices. Using interviews and focus group discussions, factors affecting the reconstruction process were elicited. Then, using concept maps, we explored the linkages of these factors leading to the adoption of the emergent housing outputs. We found that the emergence of new housing typologies that displaced the vernacular architecture was influenced by the compounded urgency to reconstruct houses, perceptions of housing safety influenced by the seismic events, the nature of aid provided alongside households’ financial capacity, and the regulatory barriers affecting traditional resource extraction. To achieve structural housing safety, this study demonstrates the need for policies that enable and guide reconstruction in emergency contexts, as well as systems to channel aid to provide equitable opportunities to build back safer. Additionally, the role of local governance is shown to leverage the use of existing indigenous construction practices salient for rebuilding. This study builds upon the heightened imperatives in the disaster risk reduction practice and policy environments to focus on the multi-hazard realities affecting communities and the use of local and indigenous knowledge to reduce disaster impacts.

Examining the Content of Disaster-Related Information Disseminated to a Migrant Population

Many local governments, especially in Japan, disseminate multilingual disaster-related information to migrants as part of their disaster education programs to make their disaster risk reduction (DRR) policies more inclusive. However, little is known about the specific content of the information disseminated through such programs and how or why that content is selected. Using an example case of Okayama Prefecture in Japan and its principal city, Okayama City, the current study identifies the content of multilingual disaster-related information, as well as the assumptions behind its selection. To this end, the content of multilingual disaster-related information disseminated by these local governments was inductively analyzed, focusing on (1) what is and is not communicated, (2) how the government views the migrant population, and (3) their goals of information dissemination targeting migrants. As a result of conducting a qualitative content analysis on information disseminated by the Okayama local governments via information booklets and a YouTube video, it was found that the content was largely concerned with calling migrants to be proactive in taking preventive and harm reduction measures, as well as acquiring prerequisite knowledge (e.g., about disasters and their management). The underlying assumptions and expectations behind this content (e.g., how a behavioral change occurs and self-sufficiency as an expectation in disaster preparedness) are discussed, as well as issues associated with these assumptions.

Mapping the exposure of tourism to weather extremes: the need for a spatially-explicit gridded dataset for disaster risk reduction

Abstract Tourism is a highly important economic sector worldwide, yet it is often less than optimally represented in terms of detailed spatial information. An accurate spatial representation of tourism can provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of tourism vulnerabilities and exposure, allowing policymakers to make informed decisions and develop effective strategies for disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation policies. Here, we stress the need for and propose a first prototype of an open-access spatially-explicit gridded database based on social media data for over 150 different tourism-related classes that depicts tourism density (supply and demand) and perceived satisfaction in Europe. We showcase the potential benefits of such database by mapping the exposure of specific tourism sectors to a range of weather extremes, including floods, windstorms, and heat stress. Based on these results, we argue that a homogeneous spatially-explicit database of tourism is essential to support efficient investments in preparedness and disaster resilience.

Disaster Risk Reduction with Smart Flood Management in Kendal Watershed, Kendal Regency, Central Java Province

Indonesia is prone to natural, non-natural, and social disasters due to its geographical, demographic, and sociological conditions. Based on the Indonesian Disaster Data (DIBI) dashboard of the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB), from 1815 to 2019, floods occurred more frequently than other disaster events, accounting for 30%, with the majority recorded in Central Java. Despite the government’s various efforts to mitigate floods, the trend indicates an increasing frequency and degree of severity every year. Moreover, disaster risk reduction remains unintegrated and relies on conventional methods, resulting in suboptimal flood risk reduction. To deal with this issue, the smart city concept that also comprises smart flood management (SFM) is being developed as a risk reduction measure. A smart city Smart city is an urban management system that integrates existing resources, including big data and ICT advances, to generate new ideas in addressing urban problems. In this study, a qualitative descriptive method was employed to evaluate the implementation of DRR strategies by comparing the contributing factors of flooding and existing flood risk reduction policies in the Kendal Watershed and then recommending appropriate solutions through smart flood management approach to lower the flood risk. With SFM, a smart city design was conceptually built by combining three components: infrastructure, technology, and collaboration. Local governments can incorporate this new design into flood disaster management in areas with similar characteristics.

Evaluation of the exposure of the Mediterranean biodiversity to marine litter: the ASI – plastic busters MPAs projects connection

A number of marine species in the Mediterranean are threatened by the presence of several pressure factors, which include climate change, collisions with vessels, entanglement and ingestion of marine litter, especially plastic. Risk reduction policies can only be conceived starting from an accurate analysis of the exposure to such pressure factors. To estimate spatial abundance of both marine species and plastic litter and to assess the exposure risk, a two-stage analysis approach was applied, using aerial survey data from the ACCOBAMS Survey Initiative (ASI), in synergy with the Plastic Busters MPAs (PB MPAs) project. First, a detection function was fitted to observation data to obtain detection probabilities for individuals, then a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) was employed to estimate the spatial distribution of relative abundance, based on survey observations. A bivariate Local Indicator of Spatial Association (LISA) was then applied to the maps of relative abundance to derive risk maps of exposure of marine species to marine litter. The maps, obtained with a spatial resolution of about 10 km, allow us to identify areas with the highest neighboring abundance of taxa and marine litter, in particular for the MPAs studied by the PB MPAs project, which include the North-Western Mediterranean (Pelagos Sanctuary and Tuscan Archipelago), the Ionian and Aegean Sea (Zakynthos), and the Strait of Sicily (Cabrera Archipelago).

Simplified Vulnerability Assessment of Historical Churches in Banat Seismic Region, Romania

ABSTRACT Romania, a mid-eastern European country, has a moderate seismicity and a large stock of historical buildings and churches. One of the most important seismic areas of the country is the Banat area, which ranks as the second most seismic area in Romania, with shallow earthquakes of crustal type. Many Orthodox and Catholic churches can be found in the area, the majority of them having a central nave. The churches are built in masonry, with vaults and wooden frameworks, and they present valuable architectural-artistic details, including paintings made by recognized painters. Various forms of structural damage appeared to the historical churches after past earthquakes, depending on the architectural configuration. This paper illustrates a study made on six historic churches in the Banat region, to investigate seismic vulnerability with simplified methods. The study highlights the most vulnerable points of the historic religious structures and the importance of investigating in a quick and simplified way the seismic behavior of such important buildings for the local community. Moreover, the main novelty of the paper is the highlighting of the importance of the sustainability aspect in the process of heritage preservation, as simplified assessment procedures are essential for more resilient risk reduction policies.

Health Disparities in the Aftermath of Flood Events: A Review of Physical and Mental Health Outcomes with Methodological Considerations in the USA.

This review applies an environmental justice perspective to synthesize knowledge of flood-related health disparities across demographic groups in the USA. The primary aim is to examine differential impacts on physical and mental health outcomes while also assessing methodological considerations such as flood exposure metrics, baseline health metrics, and community engagement. In our review (n = 27), 65% and 72% of studies identified racial, ethnic, or socio-economic disparities in physical and mental health outcomes post-flooding, respectively. The majority of racial/ethnic disparities were based on Black race, while most socio-economic disparities were based on lower household income. Forty-two percent of studies lacked flood exposure metrics, but often identified disparities. Common flood exposure metrics included self-reported flooding, flood risk models, and satellite-based observations. Seventy percent of studies lacked baseline health measurements or suitable alternatives, and only 19% incorporated community engagement into their research design. The literature consistently finds that both physical and mental health burdens following flooding are unequally shared across racial, ethnic, and socio-economic groups. These findings emphasize the need for disaster risk reduction policies that address underlying vulnerabilities to flooding, unequal exposure to flooding, and progressive funding for recovery efforts. Findings also underscore the importance of methodological enhancements to facilitate precise assessments of flood exposure and health outcomes.