Risk Factors For Human Infection Research Articles

Demographic and ecological risk factors for human influenza A virus infections in rural Indonesia.

BackgroundIndonesia has the world's highest reported mortality for human infections with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus. Indonesia is an agriculturally driven country where human‐animal mixing is common and provides a unique environment for zoonotic influenza A virus transmission.ObjectivesTo identify potential demographic and ecological risk factors for human infection with seasonal influenza A viruses in rural Indonesia, a population‐based study was conducted in Cileunyi and Soreang subdistricts near Bandung in western Java from 2008 to 2011.MethodsPassive influenza surveillance with RT‐PCR confirmation of influenza A viral RNA in respiratory specimens was utilized for case ascertainment. A population census and mapping were utilized for population data collection. The presence of influenza A(H3N2) and A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infections in a household was modeled using Generalized Estimating Equations.ResultsEach additional child aged <5 years in a household increased the odds of H3N2 approximately 5 times (OR=4.59, 95%CI: 3.30‐6.24) and H1N1pdm09 by 3.5 times (OR=3.53, 95%CI: 2.51‐4.96). In addition, the presence of 16‐30 birds in the house was associated with an increased odds of H3N2 (OR=5.08, 95%CI: 2.00‐12.92) and H1N1pdm09 (OR=12.51 95%CI: 6.23‐25.13).ConclusionOur findings suggest an increase in influenza A virus infections in rural Indonesian households with young children and poultry.

Limited awareness of animal influenza prevention and control among Dai Lue smallholder farmers in Southwest China.

Awareness of animal influenza and its prevention and control is important for ensuring livestock health, production and welfare. In China, a country stereotyped as a major source of emerging zoonotic infectious diseases, research on the public understanding of animal influenza is limited to the Han, the main ethnic group. The present qualitative study in Southwest China investigated awareness of animal influenza among the Dai, an ethnic minority. The participants (15 men and 10 women, ages 18–83) were smallholder farmers of pigs and poultry in rural areas of Jinghong, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province. A mixture of interviews and group discussions took place in homes and villages. The participants were asked about their knowledge of avian influenza (H7N9), swine influenza (H1N1), precautions taken to protect against influenza, procedures when animals were sick and perceived risk of animal influenza. The data were analysed following coding and thematic analysis. The findings demonstrated a limited understanding of animal health and welfare among participants. Specifically, they were largely unaware of animal influenza (H7N9, H1N1) including its causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment. The farmers were also uninformed of the risks they faced and unknowingly engaged in behaviours which increased direct or indirect exposure to infected animals, a risk factor for human infection. They also reported poor usage of veterinary services. In order to guarantee the health, welfare and production of their livestock, immediate action is needed to enable Dai smallholder farmers to prevent and respond to animal influenza effectively and timely.

A review of global human infection with avian influenza and epidemiological characteristics

Avian influenza virus is an influenza A virus, which generally spreads among birds, without direct infection of human. According to the pathogenicity to chicken or turkey, it is divided into high, medium and low/non pathogenic. When the virus gene recombination or mutation, it will get the ability to infect human. Additionally, avian influenza virus can also infect human directly, such as H5N1, H7N9, H5N6, H10N8 subtype. The cases of human infection with avian influenza reported frequently after the outbreak of human infection with H7N7 avian influenza in 1959, the first death case due to avian influenza virus infection causing respiratory disease was the outbreak of human infection with H5N1 in Hongkong in 1997. To date, human infection with avian influenza is a global public health problem. As avian influenza viruses perpetuated in their natural hosts, with their high genetic divergence, it would be precursor viruses even for pandemic potential. In the 20th century, four influenza pandemics were closely related to avian influenza viruses, avian is the natural host of the avian influenza virus, poultry carrying virus and dead/sick poultry infected with avian influenza virus are easier to spread virus to human, the main transmission routes are birds-human transmission (exposure to sick/dead poultry) and environment-human transmission (such as visit live poultry market). Poultries exposure and chronic medical condition are the main risk factors of human infection with avian influenza. The symptoms varies including ordinary influenza-like illness (ILI), conjunctivitis, arthritis, severe pneumonia, respiratory failure , shock and death. At present, the treatment of human infection with avian influenza includes antiviral treatment, symptomatic treatment, Chinese medicine treatment, but the most important therapy of human infection with avian influenza is the treatment of antiviral drugs (neuraminidase inhibitors), using high dose antiviral drugs in the early stage can significantly improve the survival rate. PCR and real-time PCR are the best methods for preliminary diagnosis of human infection with avian influenza. At the same time, the increase of serum antibody titer in acute stage or recovery stage can alao be confirmed. In addition, effective preventive measures (such as publicity and education, behavioral intervention and vaccination development and application) are the important means to protect human from avian influenza.

The first isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from horses in Serbia

BackgroundConsumption of undercooked or insufficiently cured meat is a major risk factor for human infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Although horsemeat is typically consumed rare or undercooked, information on the risk of T. gondii from infected horse meat to humans is scarce. Here, we present the results of a study to determine the presence of T. gondii infection in slaughter horses in Serbia, and to attempt to isolate viable parasites.MethodsThe study included horses from all regions of Serbia slaughtered at two abattoirs between June 2013 and June 2015. Blood sera were tested for the presence of specific IgG T. gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test (MAT), and samples of trypsin-digested heart tissue were bioassayed in mice. Cyst-positive mouse brain homogenates were subjected to DNA extraction and T. gondii strains were genotyped using 15 microsatellite markers (MS).ResultsA total of 105 slaughter horses were sampled. At the 1:6 cut-off 48.6% of the examined horses were seropositive, with the highest titre being 1:400. Viable parasites were isolated from two grade type mares; both parasite isolates (RS-Eq39 and RS-Eq40) were T. gondii type III, and both displayed an increased lethality for mice with successive passages. These are the first cases of isolation of T. gondii from horses in Serbia. When compared with a worldwide collection of 61 type III and type III-like strains, isolate RS-Eq39 showed a combination of MS lengths similar to a strain isolated from a duck in Iran, and isolate RS-Eq40 was identical in all markers to three strains isolated from a goat from Gabon, a sheep from France and a pig from Portugal. Interestingly, the source horses were one seronegative and one weakly seropositive.ConclusionsThe isolation of viable T. gondii parasites from slaughter horses points to horsemeat as a potential source of human infection, but the fact that viable parasites were isolated from horses with only a serological trace of T. gondii infection presents further evidence that serology may not be adequate to assess the risk of toxoplasmosis from horsemeat consumption. Presence of T. gondii type III in Serbia sheds more light into the potential origin of this archetypal lineage in Europe.

Increase in Human Infections with Avian Influenza A(H7N9) Virus During the Fifth Epidemic - China, October 2016-February 2017.

During March 2013-February 24, 2017, annual epidemics of avian influenza A(H7N9) in China resulted in 1,258 avian influenza A(H7N9) virus infections in humans being reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) by the National Health and Family Planning Commission of China and other regional sources (1). During the first four epidemics, 88% of patients developed pneumonia, 68% were admitted to an intensive care unit, and 41% died (2). Candidate vaccine viruses (CVVs) were developed, and vaccine was manufactured based on representative viruses detected after the emergence of A(H7N9) virus in humans in 2013. During the ongoing fifth epidemic (beginning October 1, 2016),* 460 human infections with A(H7N9) virus have been reported, including 453 in mainland China, six associated with travel to mainland China from Hong Kong (four cases), Macao (one) and Taiwan (one), and one in an asymptomatic poultry worker in Macao (1). Although the clinical characteristics and risk factors for human infections do not appear to have changed (2,3), the reported human infections during the fifth epidemic represent a significant increase compared with the first four epidemics, which resulted in 135 (first epidemic), 320 (second), 226 (third), and 119 (fourth epidemic) human infections (2). Most human infections continue to result in severe respiratory illness and have been associated with poultry exposure. Although some limited human-to-human spread continues to be identified, no sustained human-to-human A(H7N9) transmission has been observed (2,3).

Епідеміолоґічно значимі чинники ризику інфікування людей вірусом гарячки Західного Нілу

West Nile fever is an important viral transmissible natural focal disease in the world. Protecting the population from infection with this virus is organized considering the epizootic and epidemiological situation, assessment and analysis of which is based on the standards on epidemiological surveillance of transmissible infections. Information database includes characteristics of circulating strains; range of reservoirs; sources and vectors of the virus; hydrological, climatic and geographical description; data of monitoring of incidence and prevalence of the disease; and the risks of human infection. The estimation of the latter requires conducting of targeted descriptive-evaluative and analytical epidemiological research. Aim.&nbsp;To perform statistical processing and analysis of epidemiologically important information on the results of survey of respondents with determination of epidemiologically important risk factors of human infection with West Nile virus; to establish the nature of the relationship of identified risk factors in case of their combined impact. Materials and Methods.&nbsp;Systematization of epidemiological information of 120 respondents was performed by creating a computer database. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted using nonparametric mathematical methods: multivariate linear regression analysis, logistic regression, discriminant analysis, neural networks method (neural networks software package Statistica 8.0) Results and Discussion.&nbsp;Grouping and systematization of data are based on a hypothesis about the factors' impact on the likelihood of infection with the virus. Epidemiological information is divided into semantic units to differentiate the type of risk: behavioral, occupational, recreational, etc. It is determined that the estimated parameter t has to equal 1.979280117 and more (degrees of freedom k (124) 95% (P&lt;0.05)). Evaluation of reliability of the discrepancies of alternative features detected 11 signs with significant difference (P&lt;0.05). The study of combined factors' influence on human infection with West Nile virus using linear and logistic models showed no such effect. The use of neural networks showed&nbsp;unacceptable levels of initial approximation of the observed data (coefficient of determination R2 &lt;0.3). Conclusions.&nbsp;Eleven epidemiologically significant risk factors for human infection with West Nile virus were found. Multivariate analysis denied their combined effect on the infection of people: each of the features is independent, and the presence of only one of them has a high risk of human infection. The results showed that the area of research is the active natural focus of West Nile fever.

Examination of Oral Microbiota Diversity in Adults and Older Adults as an Approach to Prevent Spread of Risk Factors for Human Infections.

The oral cavity environment may be colonized by polymicrobial communities with complex, poorly known interrelations. The aim of this study was to determine oral microbiota diversity in order to prevent the spread of infectious microorganisms that are risk factors for human health complications in patients requiring treatment due to various disabilities. The study examined Polish adults aged between 40 and 70 years; parasitological, microbiological, and mycological data collected before treatment were analyzed. The diversity of oral microbiota, including relatively high prevalences of some opportunistic, potentially pathogenic strains of bacteria, protozoans, and fungi detected in the patients analyzed, may result in increasing risk of disseminated infections from the oral cavity to neighboring structures and other organs. Increasing ageing of human populations is noted in recent decades in many countries, including Poland. The growing number of older adults with different oral health disabilities, who are more prone to development of oral and systemic pathology, is an increasing medical problem. Results of this retrospective study showed the urgent need to pay more attention to the pretreatment examination of components of the oral microbiome, especially to the strains, which are etiological agents of human opportunistic infections and are particularly dangerous for older adults.

Identification of temperature regulated factors of Campylobacter jejuni and their potential roles in virulence.

Campylobacter jejuni is the major cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in man, while it is generally regarded as a commensal of the avian gut. Consumption and handling of contaminated poultry meat products are major risk factors for human infection. The body temperature in man (37 °C) and chickens (42 °C) differ markedly, and differential gene regulation and protein expression at different temperatures may in part explain the behaviour in the two hosts. We performed proteomics analyses with C. jejuni cells grown at 37 °C and 42 °C. Time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-Tof) analysis was carried out after samples were digested with the Filter-Aided Sample Preparation (FASP) method and peptides were fractionated by strong anion exchanges. Differentially regulated proteins were identified by Mascot and Scaffold analyses. Triple quadrupole (QQQ) mass spectrometer analysis confirmed that a total of 33 proteins were differentially regulated between 37 °C and 42 °C. Several upregulated proteins were selected for their corresponding gene knock-out mutants to be tested for their virulence in the Galleria mellonella model. To correlate with other tissue/animal models, the GADH mutant was selected for its reduced ability to colonize chickens. At 37 °C, the mutants of outer membrane protein Omp50 and Chaperone GroEL significantly increased virulence; while at 42 °C, the mutants of YceI, Omp50, and GADH reduced virulence against Galleria mellonella compared with the wild type strains. The results of current and previous studies indicate that GADH is a virulent factor in G. mellonella and a colonization factor in chickens. The workflow of this study may prove a new way to identify stress related virulent factors. The implications of these findings are discussed for pathogenesis in the model and other hosts.

Detection of pancoronavirus using PCR in Camelus dromedarius in Iran (first report).

Coronaviride is a colossal family of viruses that cause a variety of diseases in humans and other animals. As of late, a novel coronavirus, not anterior-optically discerned in humans, has been identified in a denizen of the Middle East. There is growing evidence that the Camelus dromedarius is host species for the virus and plays an important role of a source of human infection. Along these lines, the authors decided to detect coronaviruses in dromedary camels in two high-risk areas of Iran by employing an reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. In the present study, nasal swab specimens were collected from 98 camels (C. dromedarius) traditionally reared in southeast and northwest of Iran. The detection of pancoronavirus was carried out, using RT-PCR. Pancoronavirus RNA was observed in seven cases among 98 nasal swab samples. Among these, 4 positive samples belonged to Azerbaijan province located in northwest of Iran and 3 positive samples were taken from southeast of Iran. The results of this study contribute to raising the hypothesis to the extent of transmission and risk factors for human infection and public health in Iran.

Systematic review of brucellosis in Kenya: disease frequency in humans and animals and risk factors for human infection.

BackgroundBrucellosis is a debilitating zoonotic disease affecting humans and animals. A comprehensive, evidence-based assessment of literature and officially available data on animal and human brucellosis for Kenya are missing. The aim of the current review is to provide frequency estimates of brucellosis in humans, animals and risk factors for human infection, and help to understand the current situation in Kenya.MethodsA total of accessible 36 national and international publications on brucellosis from 1916 to 2016 were reviewed to estimate the frequency of brucellosis in humans and animals, and strength of associations between potential risk factors and seropositivity in humans in Kenya.ResultsThe conducted studies revealed only few and fragmented evidence of the disease spatial and temporal distribution in an epidemiological context. Bacteriological evidence revealed the presence of Brucella (B.) abortus and B. melitensis in cattle and human patients, whilst B. suis was isolated from wild rodents only. Similar evidence for Brucella spp infection in small ruminants and other animal species is unavailable. The early and most recent serological studies revealed that animal brucellosis is widespread in all animal production systems. The animal infection pressure in these systems has remained strong due to mixing of large numbers of animals from different geographical regions, movement of livestock in search of pasture, communal sharing of grazing land, and the concentration of animals around water points. Human cases are more likely seen in groups occupationally or domestically exposed to livestock or practicing risky social-cultural activities such as consumption of raw blood and dairy products, and slaughtering of animals within the homesteads. Many brucellosis patients are misdiagnosed and probably mistreated due to lack of reliable laboratory diagnostic support resulting to adverse health outcomes of the patients and routine disease underreporting. We found no studies of disease incidence estimates or disease control efforts.ConclusionThe risk for re-emergence and transmission of brucellosis is evident as a result of the co-existence of animal husbandry activities and social-cultural activities that promote brucellosis transmission. Well-designed countrywide, evidence-based, and multidisciplinary studies of brucellosis at the human/livestock/wildlife interface are needed. These could help to generate reliable frequency and potential impact estimates, to identify Brucella reservoirs, and to propose control strategies of proven efficacy.

Epidemiological description of human and animal hydatidosis in Los Ríos region, 1999- 2009

To determine the prevalence of hydatidosis in humans and livestock in the Los Ríos region during the years 1999-2009. A retrospective survey of all discharge records of patients undergoing removal of cysts produced by Echinococcus granulosus during the period 1999-2009 in the Hospital Clinico Regional of Valdivia was conducted. With the information provided incidence rate, mortality rate and fatality rate were calculated. Additionally, with the aim of determining prevalence of hydatidosis in livestock (i.e. cattle, sheep and pigs) official records of slaughtered animals for the same period from the Ministry of Health of Los Ríos region were searched. During the ten-year period 238 new human cases were recorded, the average incidence rate for the period was 6.1 per 100,000 inhabitants, the mortality rate was 0.1 per 100,000 inhabitants, and the fatality rate was 1.3%. The most affected class group was the 15-64 years old with a 70% of cases. The districts more affected were Valdivia and Río Bueno. Most cases (54%) were from patients from rural areas, while the occupation more affected was housekeeping (29%). The liver (56%) and lungs (33%) were the localization where cysts were most frequently found. On 55% of cases, patients did not show any complication; meanwhile, infected cyst (11%) and unspecified complicated (8%) were the more frequent complication. Overall, 89% of cases recovered totally after surgery. Finally, the average in patient time was 14.7 bed-days. Prevalence of hydatidosis in livestock was 23% in cattle, 23% in sheep and 12% in pigs. The highest prevalence was found in slaughter houses in the districts of Panguipulli and San José de la Mariquina. Human and animal hydatidosis is highly prevalent in humans and livestock in Los Ríos region compared to national and international records. Further research is recommended to assess risk factors for human infection and improving record-keeping and trazability of slaughtered animals to implement control measures at the farm level to help to stop the life cycle of the parasite and thus reduce human infections.

Increased risk of A(H1N1)pdm09 influenza infection in UK pig industry workers compared to a general population cohort.

BackgroundPigs are mixing vessels for influenza viral reassortment, but the extent of influenza transmission between swine and humans is not well understood.ObjectivesTo assess whether occupational exposure to pigs is a risk factor for human infection with human and swine‐adapted influenza viruses.Methods UK pig industry workers were frequency‐matched on age, region, sampling month, and gender with a community‐based comparison group from the Flu Watch study. HI assays quantified antibodies for swine and human A(H1) and A(H3) influenza viruses (titres ≥ 40 considered seropositive and indicative of infection). Virus‐specific associations between seropositivity and occupational pig exposure were examined using multivariable regression models adjusted for vaccination. Pigs on the same farms were also tested for seropositivity.ResultsForty‐two percent of pigs were seropositive to A(H1N1)pdm09. Pig industry workers showed evidence of increased odds of A(H1N1)pdm09 seropositivity compared to the comparison group, albeit with wide confidence intervals (CIs), adjusted odds ratio after accounting for possible cross‐reactivity with other swine A(H1) viruses (aOR) 25·3, 95% CI (1·4–536·3), P = 0·028.ConclusionThe results indicate that A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was common in UK pigs during the pandemic and subsequent period of human A(H1N1)pdm09 circulation, and occupational exposure to pigs was a risk factor for human infection. Influenza immunisation of pig industry workers may reduce transmission and the potential for virus reassortment.

Systematic review of brucellosis in the Middle East: disease frequency in ruminants and humans and risk factors for human infection.

A systematic review of studies providing frequency estimates of brucellosis in humans and ruminants and risk factors for Brucella spp. seropositivity in humans in the Middle East was conducted to collate current knowledge of brucellosis in this region. Eight databases were searched for peer-reviewed original Arabic, English, French and Persian journal articles; the search was conducted on June 2014. Two reviewers evaluated articles for inclusion based on pre-defined criteria. Of 451 research articles, only 87 articles passed the screening process and provided bacteriological and serological evidence for brucellosis in all Middle Eastern countries. Brucella melitensis and B. abortus have been identified in most countries in the Middle East, supporting the notion of widespread presence of Brucella spp. especially B. melitensis across the region. Of the 87 articles, 49 were used to provide evidence of the presence of Brucella spp. but only 11 provided new knowledge on the frequency of brucellosis in humans and ruminants or on human risk factors for seropositivity and were deemed of sufficient quality. Small ruminant populations in the region show seroprevalence values that are among the highest worldwide. Human cases are likely to arise from subpopulations occupationally exposed to ruminants or from the consumption of unpasteurized dairy products. The Middle East is in need of well-designed observational studies that could generate reliable frequency estimates needed to assess the burden of disease and to inform disease control policies.

SOROPREVALÊNCIA E FATORES ASSOCIADOS À INFECÇÃO POR Toxoplasma gondii EM HUMANOS E SUA RELAÇÃO COM O CONVÍVIO COM GATOS (Felis catus) DE ESTIMAÇÃO NO SUL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL

Toxoplasma gondii is the agent of a protozoan zoonotic disease of public health importance,toxoplasmosis, which may have serious consequences on the infected species. Cats are definitivehosts of the protozoan, and once infected, shed oocysts that sporulate in the environment and maybecome a source of infection for humans. The results reported by different authors about contactwith pet cats as a risk factor for human infection are controversial. In this study, serum samples from108 individuals who own or owned cats, and from 110 individuals who do not like cats and neverowned one, were analyzed for the presence of IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii through IndirectImmunofluorescence (IFI). An epidemiological questionnaire was also applied. The seroprevalencewas 39.8% for the 108 individuals who owned cats and 26.4% for the 110 individuals who neverowned cats. The analysis of risk factors showed significant association between seropositivity andthe variables: aged over 31 years (p=0.0000), contact with cats (p=0.0143), and handling of rawmeat (p=0.0290). Our findings indicate that even in a population with a high education level, contactwith cats may double the chances of infection with T. gondii, when the animals are not kept indoorsand under adequate sanitary conditions.

The role of live poultry movement and live bird market biosecurity in the epidemiology of influenza A (H7N9): A cross-sectional observational study in four eastern China provinces

A new reassortant influenza A (H7N9) virus emerged early 2013 in eastern China. Exposure to H7N9 infected poultry at live bird markets (LBM) was implicated as the main risk factor for human infection. We aimed to identify the role of LBM biosecurity indicators and poultry movement in the affected areas. A cross-sectional survey was carried out in 24 LBMs at the beginning of H7N9 outbreak in all affected provinces. We used univariable analysis to identify the biosecurity factors associated with the H7N9 presence in LBMs and social network and spatial analysis to quantify the connectivity and geographic variation in the connectivity of poultry movements. Chickens were the predominant poultry species traded by affected LBMs. The presence of H7N9 in LBMs was significantly associated with the type of LBM and with LBMs that sold chicken to other markets. The chicken movements were significantly spatially clustered and was highest in counties from Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. LBM biosecurity and chicken movement played an important role in the emergence of H7N9. This study identified highly connected areas in eastern China which continue to report human infections highlighting candidate areas for more detailed epidemiological investigations.

Case-control study of risk factors for human infection with avian influenza A(H7N9) virus in Shanghai, China, 2013.

The first human infection with avian influenza A(H7N9) virus was reported in Shanghai, China in March 2013. An additional 32 cases of human H7N9 infection were identified in the following months from March to April 2013 in Shanghai. Here we conducted a case-control study of the patients with H7N9 infection (n = 25) using controls matched by age, sex, and residence to determine risk factors for H7N9 infection. Our findings suggest that chronic disease and frequency of visiting a live poultry market (>10 times, or 1-9 times during the 2 weeks before illness onset) were likely to be significantly associated with H7N9 infection, with the odds ratios being 4.07 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.32-12.56], 10.61 (95% CI 1.85-60.74), and 3.76 (95% CI 1.31-10.79), respectively. Effective strategies for live poultry market control should be reinforced and ongoing education of the public is warranted to promote behavioural changes that can help to eliminate direct or indirect contact with influenza A(H7N9) virus.

Schistosoma japonicum in Samar, the Philippines: infection in dogs and rats as a possible risk factor for human infection.

The role that animals play in the transmission of Schistosoma japonicum to humans in the Philippines remains uncertain and prior studies have not included several species, adjustment for misclassification error and clustering, or used a cohort design. A cohort study of 2468 people providing stool samples at 12 months following praziquantel treatment in 50 villages of Western Samar, the Philippines, was conducted. Stool samples from dogs, cats, rats, and water buffaloes were collected at baseline (2003-2004) and follow-up (2005). Latent-class hierarchical Bayesian log-binomial models adjusting for misclassification errors in diagnostic tests were used. The village-level baseline and follow-up prevalences of cat, dog, and rat S. japonicum infection were associated with the 12-month cumulative incidence of human S. japonicum infection, with similar magnitude and precision of effect, but correlation between infection levels made it difficult to divide their respective effects. The cumulative incidence ratios associated with a 1% increase in the prevalence of infection in dogs at baseline and in rats at follow-up were 1·04 [95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI) 1·02-1·07] and 1·02 (95% BCI 1·01-1·04), respectively, when both species were entered in the model. Dogs appear to play a role in human schistosomiasis infection while rats could be used as schistosomiasis sentinels.

Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in a Colombian Caribbean region suggests that secondary vectors play an important epidemiological role.

BackgroundColombia, as part of The Andean Countries Initiative has given priority to triatomine control programs to eliminate primary (domiciliated) vector species such as Rhodnius prolixus and Triatoma dimidiata. However, recent events of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in localities where R. prolixus and T. dimidiata are not present suggest that other species are involved in the T. cruzi transmission cycle.MethodsWe studied T. cruzi transmission on Margarita Island, located on the Magdalena River in the Colombian Caribbean region, where a high number of non-domiciliated triatomines infected with T. cruzi inside human dwellings have been observed. A cross-sectional survey including serological studies in humans and parasitological and molecular methods in vectors and reservoirs was conducted. We investigated risk factors for human infection and house infestation, and evaluated the association between abundance of wild triatomines in palm trees (Attalea butyracea) across municipalities, seasons and anthropogenic land use.ResultsThe T. cruzi seroprevalence rate in humans was 1.7% (13/743) and autochthonous active T. cruzi transmission was detected. The infection risk was associated with the capture of triatomines in human dwellings. Five wild mammal species were infected with T. cruzi, where Didelphis marsupialis was the main reservoir host with an 86.3% (19/22) infection rate. TcIb was the only genotype present among vectors. Triatomine abundance was significantly higher in Ecosystem 2, as well as in the dry season. Despite the absence of triatomine domiciliation in this area, T. cruzi active transmission was registered with a human seroprevalence rate similar to that reported in areas with domesticated R. prolixus.ConclusionsThis study illustrates the importance of secondary and household invading triatomines in Chagas disease epidemiology in the Caribbean lowlands of Colombia.

Human exposure to live poultry and psychological and behavioral responses to influenza A(H7N9), China.

To investigate human exposure to live poultry and changes in risk perception and behavior after the April 2013 influenza A(H7N9) outbreak in China, we surveyed 2,504 urban residents in 5 cities and 1,227 rural residents in 4 provinces and found that perceived risk for influenza A(H7N9) was low. The highest rate of exposure to live poultry was reported in Guangzhou, where 47% of those surveyed reported visiting a live poultry market > or =1 times in the previous year. Most (77%) urban respondents reported that they visited live markets less often after influenza A(H7N9) cases were first identified in China in March 2013, but only 30% supported permanent closure of the markets to control the epidemic. In rural areas, 48% of respondents reported that they raised backyard poultry. Exposure to live commercial and private poultry is common in urban and rural China and remains a potential risk factor for human infection with novel influenza viruses.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Bartonella henselase infection in stray cats of the Daejeon City, Korea

Abstract : In this study, the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma (T.) gondii and Bartonella (B.) henselae infection amongstray cats in Daejeon City, Korea was surveyed. A total of seven samples were positive (7/118, 5.93%) for T. gondiiincluding three samples from female cats (3/58, 5.2%) and four samples from male cats (4/60, 6.7%). There was nosignificant difference between the genders. A total 22 samples (22/118, 18.6%) were positive for B. henselae; ninewere from females and 13 were from males. There was no significant difference between genders. Nineteen sampleshad a titer of 1 : 50, two samples had a titer of 1 : 100, and one sample had a titer of 1 : 200. The present studyis the first to use serological tests to analyze B. henselae prevalence among stray cats in Korea.Keywords : Bartonella henselae, cat, Toxoplasma gondii Introduction Toxoplasma (T.) gondii is a worldwide endemic intracellu-lar parasite that infects most warm-blooded vertebratesincluding cat, and human [12, 17, 18]. It is generally knownthat cats are a major spreader of this zoonotic agent by eat-ing or direct contacting with feces, soil, food or water con-taminated oocysts or tissue cysts of T. gondii over a period of1~2 weeks [5]. Cat is the only animal that excretes resistantoocysts into the environment and a single cat may excrete 10million oocysts [15]. Recently, several reports on the preva-lence of T. gondii infection in feral cats in local areas, includ-ing Gyeonggi province [9], Seoul [13] and Daejeon [11] havebeen published.A syndrome of fever, malasise, and regional lymphadenop-athy in people that was frequently associated with contactwith kittens or cats was called cat scratch disease (CDS),which is a zoonosis caused by Bartonella(B.) henselase [2, 4,6]. The natural infection with B. henselase is usually asymp-tomatic, or mild clinical signs such as lymphoadenopathy, sto-matitis, renal, and neurological disease in cats [7, 8]. Infectedcats, even if asymptomatic, may be highly bacteremic forseveral months, and can be a risk factor for human infection[3, 6]. In Korea, large numbers of stray cats become a con-troversial issue, due to their uncontrolled overpopulation,public health, animal welfare [11, 19]. Also, they disrupt peo-ple’s sleep, traffic accidents, and this has been a serious issuesince 2000 [12]. The purpose of this study is re-evaluate the seroprevalenceof T. gondii and B. henselae which are zoonotic pathogenthat can be spread by cats in Daejeon by Enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent assay (ELISA) and indirect immunofluores-cence antibody test (IFAT).