Roman Republic Research Articles

ФІНІКІЙСЬКА ЦИВІЛІЗАЦІЯ ЯК ПРИКЛАД ТАЛАССОКРАТІЇ У СТАРОДАВНЬОМУ СЕРЕДЗЕМНОМОР’Ї

The article is devoted to the disclosure and characterization of the main directions of trade and colonization activity of the population of ancient Phoenicia. The author notes that it was the Phoenicians who created a type of civilization in the Mediterranean called thalassocracy. It was characterized by a focus of economic, political and cultural life on activities related in one way or another to the sea, shipping and trade. The reason for this, as noted in the article was a small area of the country, which was unable to feed the entire population. Therefore, the Phoenicians were forced to exchange or purchase a significant part of the necessary goods from neighboring nations. They became the first "real merchants", "rulers of the ancient seas". Active trade contacts were facilitated by the high level of shipbuilding, which was famous for such cities as the Bible, Tire and Sidon. The most profitable and extremely common industry was the production of purple - a dye derived from marine mollusks. The author devoted the second part of the article to the colonization activities of the ancient Phoenicians, noting that in conducting trade, colonizing new territories, the Phoenicians acted as pioneers, explorers of new lands. One of the most impressive expeditions was the voyage of the Phoenician squadron around the African continent, which was carried out in the VI century BC by order of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II. Natives of Phoenicia became the first in human history to cross the Mediterranean Sea from east to west. On the way here, a number of settlements were created that could serve as bases for ships, as well as strongholds in military conflicts. The most important of these was Carthage, a state that survived Phoenicia itself and for several centuries was a powerful rival of the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians continued to develop new lands and spaces. Between about 505 and 450 BC, the Senate of Carthage sent a squadron led by the navigator Gannon. Gannon's ships passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and headed south, along the coast of West Africa. The ending point of the expedition was the territory of modern Liberia. In conclusion, the author notes that the Phoenicians created one of the most prosperous civilizations in the Mediterranean. Mostly commercial nature of the latter led to the active search for new markets and colonization of open lands. Moreover, it was here that the natives of Phoenicia long dominated the waters. They made an invaluable contribution to the development of trade and the development of the sea routes of the Old World.

VII. ‘Judging beyond the sandal’: Law and rhetoric in D. 19,2,31 (Alf. 5 dig. a Paulo epit.)

Abstract D. 19,2,31 (Alf. 5 dig. a Paulo epit.) contains a juristic responsum composed in the intermediate rhetorical style. The recognition that the fragment has rhetorical aspects helps toward solving problems of authorship and makes the text intelligible from a legal perspective. The legal and rhetorical quality of the reply provides an insight into the intellectual culture of late Republican Rome.

Flota Pyrrusa z Epiru podczas kampanii sycylijskiej w latach 278–276 p.n.e.

Pyrrhus, the ruler of Epirus, led an expedition against the Roman Republic and in defense of Tarentum in 280 B.C. He commanded inadequate and accidentally collected sea forces, as argued by Plutarchos of Cheronea, Pausanias, Appianus, Iunianus Iustinus and Diodorus Siculus. During the crossing to Sicily, Pyrrhus came into confl ict with Carthage, avoided clashing at sea with a larger Punic fleet of 100 ships thanks to a clever maneuver, and entered Syracuse afterwards. At the Grand Harbor, he captured 120 warships (κατάφρακτοι ἑκατὸν εἴκοσι) and 20 ships (ἄφρακτοι εἴκοσι), with his fleet’s strength increasing to more than 200 warships. Despite this accomplishment, Pyrrhus did not gain an operational advantage over the still numerous Carthaginian fleet, with his lack of action aimed at increasing the size of his naval forces preventing the implementation of strategic objectives. The Pyrrhus fleet could not prevent the Roman forces from gaining strength at Rhegium in 279 B.C. or cut Punic reinforcements directedto Lilybaeum in 277 B.C. In the end, the king’s fl eet suff ered a defeat at the naval battle of Messina Straits in 276 B.C.

The Political and Economic Origins of the Roman Revolution

The paper considers some economic and legal aspects of the struggle for the public land in Late Republican Rome. This period is one of the most controversial in ancient history; it brought many significant changes to the socio-economic and political life of Rome and contributed much to its transformation from Republic to Principate. Nevertheless, there is no special paper examining the competition between the Romans and Italians for the ager publicus populi Romani which started with the agrarian reform of Tiberius Gracchus in modern historiography. The first episode ended after the enactment in 111 B.C. of the lex agraria, when a large amount of public land was brought into private hands by its Roman possessors. A further part of the ager publicus populi Romani was still public and remained in hands of the socii. The logic of historical process, the economic changes of the second century B.C. which led Rome from Republic to Principate, demanded the formation of a new class of landowners. The latter would be the basis of the political system of the Roman Empire instead of the nobilitas; its political power would be based on private ownership of land. This was impossible without the full privatization of public land, and it is logical that the struggle for the ager publicus populi Romani was not ended in 111 B.C. Only after privatization of that land, which was possessed by the allies, the agrarian question in Rome could be fully resolved. The latter problem is of crucial importance for the further history of Rome, because it not only caused the Social War but also radically changed both the social structure and the political balance within Roman society during the last decades of the Republic.

The protohistoric briquetage at Puntone (Tuscany, Italy): A multidisciplinary attempt to unravel its age and role in the salt supply of Early States in Tyrrhenian Central Italy

While processes involved in the protohistoric briquetage at Puntone (Tuscany, Italy) have been reconstructed in detail, the age of this industry remained uncertain since materials suited for traditional dating (14C dating on charcoal and typological dating of ceramics) were very scarce. We attempted to assess its age by radiocarbon dating organic matter and carbonates in strata that were directly linked to the industry. Microbial DNA and C isotope analyses showed that the organic matter is dominantly composed of labile organic matter, of which the age is coeval with the briquetage industry. Carbonates had a complex origin and were overall unsuited for radiocarbon dating: Shells in process residues exhibited a large, uncertain ‘marine reservoir effect’, hampering their use for dating the industry; the secondary carbonates in these residues had a quite varied composition, including much more recent carbonate that precipitated from infiltrated lateral run-off, as could be concluded from C and Sr isotope analyses. Dates found that were deemed reliable (c. 1000–100 cal BCE) show that this ancient industry, which started in the Late Bronze Age - Early Iron Age (1107–841 cal BCE), extended into the Roman Republican period and was contemporary with the saltern-based larger scale salt industry in Central Lazio.

Three Roman Republican Seal-Rings Discovered in the Eastern Pyrenees and their Significance

The Roman presence in high mountainous areas has traditionally been considered marginal, but recent archaeological studies in several European regions have reshaped our understanding of the occupation and exploitation of these regions. Archaeological research conducted in the Cerdanya valley shows this to be the case in the eastern Pyrenees. The discovery and excavation of several indigenous settlements have allowed us to document an earlier and more intensive Roman presence there, attested by military activity and the exploitation of the area's resources. The site of Tossal de Baltarga (Lleida), where a group of Roman seal-rings was recovered, offers a window into this situation.

Counterfactuals, Empires, and Institutions: Reflections on Walter Scheidel’s Escape from Rome

This essay reviews Escape from Rome: The Failure of Empire and the Road to Prosperity by Walter Scheidel. It examines the argument that Europe’s persistent fragmentation following the collapse of the Roman Empire is responsible for the origins of the modern world. First, I consider Scheidel’s argument that the rise of Rome at the end of the first millennium BCE was relatively overdetermined, but that once Rome fell, it was highly unlikely for any subsequent empire to dominate Europe. Second, I examine the institutional consequences of this divergence in state building. Finally, I reflect on the role of counterfactuals in history. (JEL Y80)

New Finds of Roman Republican Period Denarii in the Territory of Belarus

The article examines data on new finds of the coins of Roman Republic in western Belarus. A hoard found in the vicinity of the village of Luckaŭliany occupies a special place among them. It contained 11 Roman Republican denarii and a Numidian denarius. These data suggest that the distribution of silver coins of the 2nd to the 1st centuries BC in this part of Barbaricum was associated with the expansion of the Przeworsk culture, the bearers of which were quite familiar with Roman silver coins. At the same time, most of the finds under consideration should not be associated with the Przeworsk culture itself, but with population of neighboring cultures that had intensive contacts with the latter.

Farmers, the Police Force, and the Authorities: The “Calvatone (1911) Hoard” as Seen Through Archival Records (Cremona – Italy)

This paper presents a new set of archival records from Rome on the discovery of a Roman Republican denarii hoard, found by the brothers Birsilio and Luigi Simonazzi on their lands at Calvatone (Cremona, Italy, 1911). Local police forces seized the hoard and alerted the Coin Cabinet of Brera in Milan, where the numismatist Serafino Ricci (1867–1943) evaluated and finally acquired selected coins to increase the museum collections. The “Calvatone (1911) hoard” is an essential case study in the history of Italian numismatic collections, museum studies, and archaeology. These records are particularly worth studying for two main reasons. They show how local and regional authorities dealt with casual archaeological discoveries in northern Italy during the post-Unification period (1861–1918). They also help us to better understand how the Italian government acted to safeguard antiquities according to contemporary law, and how the state collections could be increased by judicial seizures and fresh acquisitions.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE CONCEPT OF RELIGIO IN THE WORKS OF CICERO

This article is devoted to the analysis of the anthropological aspects of the concept of religio used in the well-known legacy of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero’s contribution to the development of philosophical understanding of various aspects of human society is generally recognized, but one of the most valuable “pearls”, which is highly valued by modern researchers, is his analysis of the Latin word religio, which is found in his works more than 600 times. In our opinion, an important aspect of Cicero’s reflections on religion is the consideration of his literary and philosophical heritage in the context of the crucial historical and political processes that took place in the Roman Republic in the first century BC, similar to the challenges facing the modern Russian and international community. The article attempts to comprehend the Latin lexemes superstitio and sacrum, which are close in meaning to the concept of religio, which allows us more accurately to explicate this concept from its related definitions. The results of the study. Cicero draws a clear line between the concepts of religio (internal and external sincere piety), sacrum (Roman state understanding of shrines) and superstitio (false beliefs). He identifies the following main functions in the concept of religio: Ideological (uniting people on the basis of pious beliefs in common gods), ideological (everything in the world happens with the permission of the gods as the foundations of the “higher order of nature”) and socio-managerial (universal values that govern the behavior of an individual in society).

A STILL LIFE OIL PAINTED BY HENDRIK VANDER BORGHT IN 1650 WITH ANCIENT COINS FROM DACIA: A HIGHLY EDUCATED WORK AND A POLITICAL MANIFESTO

An oil painting by Hendrik Vander Borght and dated 1650 displays an assemblage of Roman vases (6 in clay and 2 in glass) and 11 ancient coins (3 Greek, 3 Roman Republican and 5 Roman Imperial), depicted with an astonishing accuracy, allowing a precise identification for most of them. From an archaeological point of view, such a grouping of coins can only come from ancient Dacia. It is argued here that the painting is organized in order to display a political manifesto for the good ruler, strong, but not autocratic. It may refer to the general uncertainty felt soon after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Wars of Religion, but it may also be more precisely related to Transylvania at a time when the young and adventurous George II Rakoczi was recklessly preparing to invade Poland, after having succeeded in 1648 his father George I, whose reign was remembered as a golden age for Transylvania.

Political Authority and Local Agency: Cilicia Pedias and Syria between the Seleucid Empire and the Roman Republic

Abstract This paper aims to show how local civic communities, nominally subject to the Seleucid dynasts, integrated Roman magistrates into an existing framework of authority during the late second and early first centuries BCE. I argue that as Roman magistrates played an increasingly significant role in the region, cities initially framed them in quasi-regal terms, which their interlocutors consciously accepted. Through a close reading of two Roman letters to the Cilician city of Mopsuestia, dated to 87 BCE (SEG 44.1227), and analysis of literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence for the final collapse of Seleucid authority in the early 60s BCE, I reveal that this was a locally driven process. Consequently, local agents played a critical role in both legitimising Roman hegemony in local contexts and encouraging Roman intervention within the region.

Cosmopolitanism and the Roman Empire.

My article explores the tension between idealized cosmopolitan ideas, of a single citizenry for all people in the world, and imperial Roman nationalism between the late Roman Republic and the Italian Renaissance. In the form of three case studies (and without any claim that those are representative for the development) it focusses on three important thinkers whose work shows affinity with cosmopolitan discourse, but who at the same time also explicitly reflected on the political realities they were living in: Cicero, Augustine, and Lorenzo Valla. All three favour cosmopolitan ideals over political egoism, and all three reflect on whether and how the historical reign under which they are living can live up to the philosophical or theological ideals they advocate. Finally, all three authors do not only share similar discursive patterns, but also react to each other intertextually (links will be mentioned especially between Cicero and Augustine and between Augustine and Valla). Thus, while all three are distinct in their argument and use cosmopolitan concepts for hugely different aims, the comparison can share light both on the boundaries and the discursive power of the concept in Latin literature.
 

기원전 63년 룰루스(P. Servilius Rullus) 농지 법안 재고: 기원전 103년‒기원전 63년 로마 공화정 후기 농지 정책 변천사

In contrast to the voluminous scholarship on the Gracchan agrarian reforms, the agrarian history of Roman Italy of the last century of the Roman Republic is in need of a systematic analysis. Modern discussions of the agrarian legislation after the Gracchi tend to be fragmented; it has been generally considered as a contributing factor in narratives of political struggles of the final phase of the Republic, if not treated as an epilogue to the significant Gracchan period. This paper reassesses the agrarian proposal of P. Servilius Rullus in 63 BC, primarily in the context of the Roman agrarian policy after the Gracchi, rather than seeing it from the perspective of Roman politics at that time. This paper examines the way in which Rullus’ proposal reflects provisions of earlier measures and attempts to contribute to a better understanding of the innovations of Rullus’ proposal. The provision of the purchase of land for re-distribution with public funds in Rullus’ proposal was first introduced in Saturninus’ agrarian law in 100 BC, which then seems to have been adopted in Plotius’ agrarian law in 70/69 BC. Rullus also revived Livius Drusus’ colonial foundations in Italy in 91 BC, rejecting, however, Sulla’s coercive measures in 82 BC. This paper concludes by suggesting that Rullus’ agrarian proposal was in the tradition of the Gracchan agrarian reforms, which was continued by Flavius in 60 BC and Caesar in 59 BC.

The demise of the Roman Republic: a faulty constitution?

The Roman Republic was one of the earliest and long-lasting democracies (510-27 BCE). To prevent the creation of dictatorship, it had a system of separation of powers but it failed to protect the Roman Republic. The ultimate cause of the fall of the Roman Republic was due to the immense wealth that Rome accumulated from its empire and the impact this wealth had on Rome’s institutions, especially its generals. Cicero proposed constitutional reforms to prevent its demise. His reforms were unnecessary because the Roman Senate already had the constitutional authority to prevent its demise. The problem was that Senators lacked an incentive to use their constitutional authority to save Rome’s democracy.

Sinais divinos e prodígios na construção da imagem de Augusto: um estudo a partir de Suetônio

O papel sociopolítico da religião e dos rituais são elementos cruciais para o estudo das instituições romanas. Afinal, a esfera religiosa integra um complexo sistema epistemológico produzido pela elite republicana que é atrelado aos diversos segmentos sociais de Roma. Dessa forma, objetivamos analisar as atividades religiosas atribuídas à magistratura e ao Senado na República Romana.

Roman History

A bumper edition this time, by way of apology for COVID-necessitated absenteeism in the autumn issue. The focus is on three pillars of social history – the economy (stupid), law, and religion. First up is Saskia Roselaar's second monograph, Italy's Economic Revolution. Roselaar sets out to trace the contribution made by economics to Italy's integration in the Roman Republic, focusing on the period after the ‘conquest’ of Italy (post 268 bce). Doing so necessitates two distinct steps: assessing, first, how economic contacts developed in this period, and second, whether and to what extent those contacts furthered the wider unification of Italy under Roman hegemony. Roselaar is influenced by New Institutional Economics (hereafter NIE), now ubiquitous in studies of the ancient economy. Her title may be an homage to Philip Kay's Rome's Economic Revolution, but the book itself is a challenge to that work, which in Roselaar's view neglects almost entirely the agency of the Italians in the period's economic transformation. For Roselaar, the Italians were as much the drivers of change as the Romans; indeed, it is this repeated conviction that unifies her chapters.

The Roman Republic of Letters: Scholarship, Philosophy, and Politics in the Age of Cicero and Caesar by Katharina Volk

Reviewed by: The Roman Republic of Letters: Scholarship, Philosophy, and Politics in the Age of Cicero and Caesar by Katharina Volk Luca Grillo The Roman Republic of Letters: Scholarship, Philosophy, and Politics in the Age of Cicero and Caesar. By Katharina Volk. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2021. Pp. 400. The title, The Roman Republic of Letters, naturally establishes a conversation with some recent contributions on late republican literature (especially by Yelena Baraz, Sean Gurd, Sarah Stroup, and Ingo Gildenhard).1 However, unlike these monographs, which weigh the political force of literary works, Volk concentrates on the social dimension of intellectual endeavors. Specifically, Volk closely analyzes the last twenty years of the Roman republic, from 63 to 43 b.c.e. She takes her beginning from the observation that the senator-scholars who led the cultural flourishing were friends, but they also fought a bloody civil war against each other. The book combines the two narratives—of friendship and of conflict—and successfully treats them "as one and the same story" (2). To this end, Volk acknowledges her debt to Elizabeth Rawson's and Claudia Moatti's monographs on the intellectual history of the late Roman republic.2 While her line of inquiry often intersects with theirs, Volk aims to uncover the thoughts and intentions of a few leading intellectuals and politicians, seen as free agents in the libera respublica. She essentially asks: "why are the same men political players and intellectual luminaries? What are the social, political, and larger cultural circumstances that enable this convergence of roles? How do these men's political and intellectual activities relate to one another? and what is the relationship (if any) between the late Republic's cultural flourishing and its concomitant political collapse?" (3). Following the introduction in Chapter One, Chapter Two carefully analyzes the "vocabulary of learned pursuits" (16) and draws a lively sketch of the societas studiorum—that is, the thick web connecting a group of amici who were in the habit of collaborating on their intellectual activities. As Volk notes, these men regularly exchanged books and shared ideas, giving and receiving feedback; they strongly disagreed, and yet they respectfully remained in the same scholarly conversation, continuing to encourage one another. The remaining four chapters, which form the core of the monograph, consider how partaking in the societas studiorum affected the personal and public life of its members. Chapter Three argues against Griffin's view that one's personal practice of philosophy (and even one's open association with a philosophical school) made virtually no impact on [End Page 160] his political decisions. For example, having delivered a salutary reminder that Stoicism was not yet widespread in the late republic, Volk shows that Cato's idiosyncratic choice to endorse Stoic teachings explains his relentless focus on the virtue of an agent and patent disregard for results. This analysis follows the recent work of Kit Morrell,3 but while agreeing that Stoicism influenced Cato's politics, Volk upholds the traditional view of Cato as a staunch conservative. After Pharsalus, some defeated Pompeians engaged in a sort of "group therapy," seeking consolation in philosophy and supporting each other in coping with Caesar's increasing despotism (Chapter Four). The unprecedented political landscape strained the societas studiorum, but Volk demonstrates that, to an extent and perhaps contrary to expectations, freedom of speech and mutual politeness still set the tone for intellectual interactions between opponents such as Cicero, Caesar, Brutus, and Cassius. The societas held, yet philosophy influenced the conspirators' decision to murder Caesar and to reengage with politics after his death. Chapter Five is concerned with other scholarly enterprises, especially antiquarian and linguistic discussions in their political and religious contexts. While rationally discussing the pillars of republican institutions, both Varro's Antiquitates and Cicero's De Re Publica explore the disjunction between the Roman ideal and the reality of their times; they do so especially to investigate how contemporary Romans might live up to a forgotten ideal. Cicero, Varro, and Caesar engaged in a similar debate regarding Latinitas, or the proper use of Latin. They debated a model based on consuetudo, or common...

Divine Institutions: Religions and Community in the Middle Roman Republic. By Dan‐El PadillaPeralta. Pp. xiii, 323, Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2020, $45.00.

The Heythrop JournalVolume 62, Issue 2 p. 364-364 Book Review Divine Institutions: Religions and Community in the Middle Roman Republic. By Peralta, Dan-El Padilla. Pp. xiii, 323, Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2020, $45.00. Patrick Madigan, Patrick Madigan Campion Hall, OxfordSearch for more papers by this author Patrick Madigan, Patrick Madigan Campion Hall, OxfordSearch for more papers by this author First published: 08 March 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/heyj.13844Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume62, Issue2Special Issue: Classical CultureMarch 2021Pages 364-364 RelatedInformation

Cato the Younger: Life and Death at the End of the Roman Republic. By Fred K.Drogula. Pp. xviii, 350, Oxford University Press, 2019, $35.00.The Year of Julius and Caesar: 59 BC and the Transformation of the Roman Republic. By Stefan G.Chrissanthos. Pp. xvi, 179, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019, $19.00.

The Heythrop JournalVolume 62, Issue 2 p. 365-366 Book Review Cato the Younger: Life and Death at the End of the Roman Republic. By Drogula, Fred K.. Pp. xviii, 350, Oxford University Press, 2019, $35.00. The Year of Julius and Caesar: 59 BC and the Transformation of the Roman Republic. By Chrissanthos, Stefan G.. Pp. xvi, 179, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019, $19.00. Patrick Madigan, Patrick Madigan Campion Hall, OxfordSearch for more papers by this author Patrick Madigan, Patrick Madigan Campion Hall, OxfordSearch for more papers by this author First published: 08 March 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/heyj.13846Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume62, Issue2Special Issue: Classical CultureMarch 2021Pages 365-366 RelatedInformation