Rinderpest Research Articles

Sequence and destroy: the quest to eliminate the last stocks of deadly rinderpest virus

Labs are being encouraged to sequence their remaining samples of the devastating livestock virus — and then get rid of them for good. Labs are being encouraged to sequence their remaining samples of the devastating livestock virus — and then get rid of them for good.

Last rinderpest samples destroyed at Pirbright

Last rinderpest samples destroyed at Pirbright

Peste des petits ruminants: A review

Peste-des-petits-ruminants (PPR) is a notifiable, contagious and economically important transboundary viral disease of small ruminant causing high morbidity and mortality. It belongs to negative-sense, single-stranded RNA paramyxovirus of genus Morbillivirus. PPR occurs in populations of immunologically naive sheep and goats, illness and death can be high as >90%. The virus is commonly found in developing countries, especially in tropical countries where the disease is widespread. After the eradication of the rinderpest virus, which is closely relate to PPRV of small ruminants contaminated with SRMV are diagnosed having pyrexia, oculo-nasal discharges, necrotizing and erosive stomatitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhea and broncho pneumonia, whereas, gross pathology, histological findings along with laboratory confirmation of specific virus antigen, antibodies, genome in the clinical samples through a variety of serological and molecular diagnostic tests can be useful. In addition there should be social economic surveys, disease hot spot recognition and identification of role of additional species in disease transmission. SRMV control may be achieved by confinement of contaminated animals, subtraction of theoretically tainted fomites with control at import and export of sheep with goats from contaminated areas. PPR can be controlled through mass vaccination program. In the future, the preparation of a marker vaccine with a robust companion test may assist in serosurveillance for the detection of infection in vaccinated animals to control the disease. Keywords: Control; Epidemiology; Goat; Peste des petits ruminants; Sheep; Vaccination http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2019.80063

Investigating the role of Ebp1 in Chandipura virus infection

ErbB-3 binding protein 1 (Ebp1) is a host protein which binds ErbB-3 receptor to induce signalling events for cell growth regulation. In addition, Ebp1 also interacts with ribonucleoprotein complexes. In recent times, Ebp1 was found to play an antagonistic role in viral infections caused by Influenza and Rinderpest viruses. In our present work we have tried to understand the role of Ebp1 in Chandipura virus (CHPV) infection. We have observed an induction in Ebp1 expression upon CHPV infection similar to other viruses. However, unlike other viruses an overexpressed Ebp1 only reduces viral protein expression, but does not affect its progeny formation. Additionally, this effect is being carried out in an indirect manner, as there is no interaction between Ebp1 and viral proteins. This is despite Ebp1's presence in viral inclusion bodies.

Rinderpest eradication from India: Impact on agriculture sector

Rinderpest with its devastating history on the livestock (LS) sector has a positive legacy in the creation of first veterinary school in Lyon, Paris, in 1762 and Indian Civil Veterinary Services in 1891. Rinderpest was also instrumental for the establishment of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE): The World Organization for Animal Health in 1924 in Paris. The research on rinderpest in India started with the establishment of Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory (IBL) at Mukteswar in 1893, now known as Indian Veterinary Research Institute. The disease caused serious destruction of large ruminants (cattle and buffaloes), small ruminants (sheep and goats) and pigs, adversely affecting LS production and cattle/buffalo-driven agricultural operations in Indian villages affecting crop production besides causing colossal losses to milk and meat production. In India, rinderpest was endemic from 1900 to 1950, and in its classical form, the disease caused 80–90% mortality among cattle and buffaloes. The new era in the fight to control rinderpest in India started with the development of attenuated goat tissue rinderpest virus vaccine in 1920 by J.T. Edwards, which protected animals from rinderpest for whole of their life. This vaccine was used universally to combat rinderpest in Asian, African and European countries. Subsequently, lapinised, avianised, lapinised-avianised viruses and rinderpest tissue culture vaccines were developed for usage, but it was rinderpest tissue culture vaccine that successfully replaced goat tissue rinderpest vaccine.

The large protein \u2018L\u2019 of Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus exhibits RNA triphosphatase activity, the first enzyme in mRNA capping pathway

Peste-des-petits-ruminants is a highly contagious and fatal disease of goats and sheep caused by non-segmented, negative strand RNA virus belonging to the Morbillivirus genus—Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) which is evolutionarily closely related to Rinderpest virus (RPV). The large protein ‘L’ of the members of this genus is a multifunctional catalytic protein, which transcribes and replicates the viral genomic RNA as well as possesses mRNA capping, methylation and polyadenylation activities; however, the detailed mechanism of mRNA capping by PPRV L protein has not been studied. We have found earlier that the L protein of RPV has RNA triphosphatase (RTPase), guanylyltransferase (GTase) and methyltransferase activities, and unlike vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), follows the conventional pathway of mRNA capping. In the present work, using a 5′-end labelled viral RNA as substrate, we demonstrate that PPRV L protein has RTPase activity when present in the ribonucleoprotein complex of purified virus as well as recombinant L–P complex expressed in insect cells. Further, a minimal domain in the C-terminal region (aa1640–1840) of the L protein has been expressed in E. coli and shown to exhibit RTPase activity. The RTPase activity of PPRV L protein is metal-dependent and functions with a divalent cation, either magnesium or manganese. In addition, RTPase associated nucleotide triphosphatase activity (NTPase) of PPRV L protein is also demonstrated. This work provides the first detailed study of RTPase activity and identifies the RTPase domain of PPRV L protein.

Filter paper is a simple and cost-effective transport medium for serological diagnosis of Peste des petits ruminants

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease caused by peste-des-petits-ruminants virus. Following the successful eradication of the related rinderpest virus, a program to control and eradicate PPR was launched by the FAO and OIE. PPR is today present in many tropical countries where maintaining the cold chain for sample transportation is one of the major barriers for timely processing. Transport of samples on filter paper is a simple and cost-effective method, however validation and optimization is required to fully adapt this approach. The objective of this study was to evaluate and validate the use of filter paper in serological diagnosis of PPR. Blood samples (serum and filter paper) were collected from sheep and goats in both Tanzania and Pakistan and analysed using a PPRV-specific cELISA. The positive proportion was 10.7% in Tanzania and 80% in Pakistan when performing the analysis on serum. These results were then considered as reference and compared to the results from the filter papers analysed by the same cELISA. According to the statistical analysis the cut-off for a positive results for samples stored on filter paper was adjusted from <50 % competition percentage to <84% in Tanzania and to <69% in Pakistan.These results demonstrate that filter papers are an acceptable and cost-effective transport method of whole blood samples for later use in serological analysis.

Structure-Guided Identification of a Nonhuman Morbillivirus with Zoonotic Potential.

Morbilliviruses infect a broad range of mammalian hosts, including ruminants, carnivores, and humans. The recent eradication of rinderpest virus (RPV) and the active campaigns for eradication of the human-specific measles virus (MeV) have raised significant concerns that the remaining morbilliviruses may emerge in so-called vacated ecological niches. Seeking to assess the zoonotic potential of nonhuman morbilliviruses within human populations, we found that peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV)-the small-ruminant morbillivirus-is restricted at the point of entry into human cells due to deficient interactions with human SLAMF1-the immune cell receptor for morbilliviruses. Using a structure-guided approach, we characterized a single amino acid change, mapping to the receptor-binding domain in the PPRV hemagglutinin (H) protein, which overcomes this restriction. The same mutation allowed escape from some cross-protective, human patient, anti-MeV antibodies, raising concerns that PPRV is a pathogen with zoonotic potential. Analysis of natural variation within human and ovine SLAMF1 also identified polymorphisms that could correlate with disease resistance. Finally, the mechanistic nature of the PPRV restriction was also investigated, identifying charge incompatibility and steric hindrance between PPRV H and human SLAMF1 proteins. Importantly, this research was performed entirely using surrogate virus entry assays, negating the requirement for in situ derivation of a human-tropic PPRV and illustrating alternative strategies for identifying gain-of-function mutations in viral pathogens.IMPORTANCE A significant proportion of viral pandemics occur following zoonotic transmission events, where animal-associated viruses jump species into human populations. In order to provide forewarnings of the emergence of these viruses, it is necessary to develop a better understanding of what determines virus host range, often at the genetic and structural levels. In this study, we demonstrated that the small-ruminant morbillivirus, a close relative of measles, is unable to use human receptors to enter cells; however, a change of a single amino acid in the virus is sufficient to overcome this restriction. This information will be important for monitoring this virus's evolution in the field. Of note, this study was undertaken in vitro, without generation of a fully infectious virus with this phenotype.

Eradication of Rinderpest from Poland in 1921-1922

Due to Rinderpest disease (cattle plague) in Poland, over 40,000 cattle died within the three months of the first half of 1920. Stopping the epizooty of rinderpest (pestis bovum; cattle plague; Typhus bovum contagiosus) spreading from Russia should be considered one of the greatest scientific, organizational and economic achievements of the reviving Polish statehood. Rinderpest is a highly contagious, viral disease caused by the Rinderpest virus, which leads to the death of over 90% of infected animals. Rinderpest virus damages lymphoid cells and the epithelial cell layer of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, genital tract and external- -secretory glands (lacrimal glands, mucous glands, salivary glands). Within a few days after infection, animals begin presenting symptoms of sepsis and dehydration caused by necrotic and hemorrhagic lesions of the gastrointestinal tract. In order to stop the epizooty of bovine disease, the Ministry of Agriculture and State Goods ordered Dr. Feliks Jaroszyński to organize a rinderpest field station. The station was established in the forester’s lodge, in Michałówka near Puławy. The station produced anti-rinderpest serum and a rinderpest vaccine. In the peak period of operation, 2000 L of vaccine was produced each month. Vaccination of cattle carried out in the area endangered by rinderpest prevented the epidemic in 1922 and protected Poland and Europe from enormous losses. Knowledge about this unprecedented scientific, organizational and economic enterprise is not widely known, which neglects Poland’s pioneering contribution to preventing the epidemic of rinderpest. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) announced in 2010 that the world is free of the disease caused by the Rinderpest virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Morbillivirus.

Transcending from Veterinary Public Health to One Health: A Review of the Role of Veterinary Medicine in Human Health

From the pre-modern era around 475 CE when ‗horse doctoring‘ was the subject of veterinary attention because of economic interest to 1762 when the first veterinary school was established to control the devastating economic effects of Rinderpest (Cattle plague) in cattle; basically, veterinary medicine evolved both as a practice and a profession to attend to specific human disease, financial, economic and nutritional needs. It took 250 years after the establishment of the first veterinary school to finally get Rinderpest eradicated worldwide. Meanwhile, environmental degradation/pollution and current modern economic/trade practices have led to an estimated 61% of emerging human infections over the past fifty years or thereabout being zoonotic diseases of human beings transmitted from animals. During the same period, non-zoonotic animal diseases now have serious economic, mortality, public health, trans-boundary and international trade effects; and pets have become significant human emotive partners. These challenges call for an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach, with Veterinary Medicine being the fulcrum of a One Health initiative „to attain optimal health for animal, humans (and plants) in a common environment‘. Nigerian veterinarians have the professional agricultural-environmental--medical-veterinary responsibility to have an active and pioneer ‗paradigm shift‘ towards instutionalization of One Health in Nigeria, lest it suffers from ‗paradigm paralysis‘- a harmful inaction and/or resistance to the imperative of expedient change.Key words: Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Public Health, Human Health, One Health. Paradigm Shift.

Decision Support for Mitigation of Livestock Disease: Rinderpest as a Case Study.

A versatile, interactive model to predict geographically resolved epidemic progression after pathogen introduction into a population is presented. Deterministic simulations incorporating a compartmental disease model run rapidly, facilitating the analysis of mitigations such as vaccination and transmission reduction on epidemic spread and progression. We demonstrate the simulation model using rinderpest infection of cattle, a devastating livestock disease. Rinderpest has been extinguished in the wild, but it is still a threat due to stored virus in some laboratories. Comparison of simulations to historical outbreaks provides some validation of the model. Simulations of potential outbreaks demonstrate potential consequences of rinderpest virus release for a variety of possible disease parameters and mitigations. Our results indicate that a rinderpest outbreak could result in severe social and economic consequences.

The rinderpest virus tracking system

The rinderpest virus tracking system

Canine Distemper Virus Spread and Transmission to Naive Ferrets: Selective Pressure on Signaling Lymphocyte Activation Molecule-Dependent Entry.

Upon infection, morbilliviruses such as measles virus, rinderpest virus, and canine distemper virus (CDV) initially target immune cells via the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) before spreading to respiratory epithelia through the adherens junction protein nectin-4. However, the roles of these receptors in transmission from infected to naive hosts have not yet been formally tested. To experimentally addressing this question, we established a model of CDV contact transmission between ferrets. We show here that transmission of wild-type CDV sometimes precedes the onset of clinical disease. In contrast, transmission was not observed in most animals infected with SLAM- or nectin-4-blind CDVs, even though all animals infected with the nectin-4-blind virus developed sustained viremia. There was an unexpected case of transmission of a nectin-4-blind virus, possibly due to biting. Another unprecedented event was transient viremia in an infection with a SLAM-blind virus. We identified three compensatory mutations within or near the SLAM-binding surface of the attachment protein. A recombinant CDV expressing the mutated attachment protein regained the ability to infect ferret lymphocytes in vitro, but its replication was not as efficient as that of wild-type CDV. Ferrets infected with this virus developed transient viremia and fever, but there was no transmission to naive contacts. Our study supports the importance of epithelial cell infection and of sequential CDV H protein interactions first with SLAM and then nectin-4 receptors for transmission to naive hosts. It also highlights the in vivo selection pressure on the H protein interactions with SLAM.IMPORTANCE Morbilliviruses such as measles virus, rinderpest virus, and canine distemper virus (CDV) are highly contagious. Despite extensive knowledge of how morbilliviruses interact with their receptors, little is known about how those interactions influence viral transmission to naive hosts. In a ferret model of CDV contact transmission, we showed that sequential use of the signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM) and nectin-4 receptors is essential for transmission. In one animal infected with a SLAM-blind CDV, we documented mild viremia due to the acquisition of three compensatory mutations within or near the SLAM-binding surface. The interaction, however, was not sufficient to cause disease or sustain transmission to naive contacts. This work confirms the sequential roles of SLAM and nectin-4 in morbillivirus transmission and highlights the selective pressure directed toward productive interactions with SLAM.

Recombinant Newcastle disease viruses with targets for PCR diagnostics for rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants

Since February 1st 2011, rinderpest (RP) has been officially declared eradicated worldwide. National authorities have been requested to destroy all their RP related materials. Nonetheless, their national reference laboratories performing real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays (PCR diagnostics) need RP positive control samples, since some countries still prefer to maintain diagnostic capability for RP for several reasons. In the future, a similar situation will arise for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) as the ambition has been expressed to eradicate PPR. Anticipating on this, we intended to perform qualified PCR diagnostics without use of infectious RPV or PPRV. Therefore, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) with small RNA inserts based on RPV or PPRV sequences were generated and used as positive control material. Recombinant NDVs (recNDVs) were differentially detected by previously established PCR diagnostics for RPV or PPRV. Both recNDVs contain a second PCR target showing that additional targets in NDV are feasible and would increase the diagnostic sensitivity by use of two PCR assays. RecNDV with small PCR targets is not classified as RPV or PPRV containing material, and can be used to mimic RPV or PPRV. Using these recNDVs as virus positive material contributes to the ambition of worldwide eradication, while qualified PCR diagnostics for these OIE-listed diseases remains operational.

Colonialism and Public Health: The Case of the Rinderpest Virus in Oromia Regional State in Ethiopia

Background: Colonizers usually present their agenda in positive terms–theirs is a civilizing mission and they pretend to be healers. For the colonized people, on the other hand, colonialism represents poverty and disease or at least disease-causing agents. In Oromia, the rinderpest virus (RPV) epidemic is one of the pathways by which colonialism and racist mindsets caused famine, poverty, diseases and millions of deaths. Objective: The objective of this paper is to learn from the past, envision a better future by preventing infectious diseases, diversify the economy, develop public health institutions, promote healthy public policy and guarantee food security. Methods: In this paper, using documents and oral narrative analyses, I explore the origin of RPV and its impacts on human lives and natural environments in Oromia. Findings: In 1887, the Italian army stationed in Massawa-the Red Sea port had brought cattle infected with RPV. The Abyssinian army seized the cattle and unwittingly introduced this infectious disease to the highlands of the present state of Eritrea. In the 1880s, Abyssinia- supported by the European empire builders was expanding its colonial territories and in the process annexed Oromia and introduced RPV. RPV epidemics, compounded with the Abyssinian colonial war and widespread looting, caused famine in Oromia and accounted for the deaths of two-thirds of the Oromo people. Conclusion: The RPV epidemic made the Oromo people easily succumb to Abyssinian rule and hindered their aspirations to rebel against the siege. RPV persisted in Oromia for over 120 years and severely harmed Oromo social, cultural and political institutions. Public health students and policy makers need to learn from the past and oppose all forms of racist views and promote social justice as a means of granting better public health.

С.В. ІВАНИЦЬКИЙ – ФУНДАТОР ВЕТЕРИНАРНОЇ ГЕЛЬМІНТОЛОГІЇ В УКРАЇНІ

Serhiy Vsevolodovych Ivanytskyi was born in July 1895 in Bessarabska Gubernia (Moldova) in the family of petty bourgeoises. There were six children in the family three sons and three daughters. After finishing the gymnasium in 1915 S. V. Ivanytskyi entered Warsaw veterinary institute that was evacuated to Moscow. From 1918 to 1919 he continued his education in Donskoy veterinary institute (DVI, Novocherkask) and at the same time he worked as a ”servant” at the department of animal hygiene. After graduation from the institute there was a try to mobilize him for the army but he was recognized unusable for the military service. Instead he got a job of the local epizootic doctor in Novocherkask and a junior doctor of the scab field hospital, he took an active part in the eradication of cattle plague (rinderpest). Then he managed to get the post of an assistant at the department of pharmacology and recipe. He worked in DVI from 1919 to 1921. He was sent to Kherson antirabies station in order to test the drug. Soon after the station was closed and Serhiy Vsevolodovych had to solve the dilemma “What to do?” He stayed there and soon after he became the head of the veterinary department in Kherson region and then in Odesa region. From 1926 to 1934 S. V. Ivanytskyi was an assistant, a specialist, chief of the helminthology department in the Institute of research and practical veterinary medicine (Kharkiv), where the helminthology laboratory was established by him. From 1926 to 1930 he was posted four times to the helminthology department of the All-Union institute of experimental veterinary medicine (Moscow) to specialize in helminthology under supervision of Professor K. I. Skryabin. From 1927 to 1929 S. V. Ivanytskyi was in charge with the Ukrainian helminthological expeditions № 2, 3 and 4. By the results of the above expeditions for the first time in the USSR he introduced the planned regular general dehelminthisation of sheep and dogs, control of stray dogs, rational organization and placement of water trough system for sheep under field conditions on the sheep-breeding farms of Ukraine. The above system was demonstrated at the All-Union agricultural exhibition and its author got a diploma and a prize (bonus). During his work in the Institute of experimental veterinary medicine in Kharkiv S. V. Ivanytskyi trained 6 doctors-helminthologists, 7 veterinary doctors – regional parasitologists, organized courses in complex antihelminth measures on the sheep-breeding farms and some courses for the improvement of qualification for veterinarians of Ukraine. In January 1931 Serhiy Vsevolodovych was accepted for the position of an extra-staff lecturer in Kharkiv veterinary institute (KhVI) to give lectures in parasitology. In October 25, 1932 by the order № 26 the first department of parasitology in Ukraine was established and S. V. Ivanytskyi became the chief of the department. In December 5, 1935 S. V. Ivanytskyi obtained the academic degree of Candidate of Veterinary Science and the academic position of Professor at the department of parasitology. After the long-term and serious disease S. V. Ivanytskyi died on 31st of January 1941. For the period of his educational and scientific work on animal helminthosis Serhiy Vsevolodovych Ivanytskyi published 31 scientific works, prepared the textbook “Invasive diseases of domestic animals”, developed and introduced into practice “Rational organization and use of water trough on sheep-breeding farms”. His scientific work was based on the expeditions and experimental research. Three candidate‘s degree dissertations were successfully defended under his guidance and the above thesis were of great importance for science and practice.

Future research to underpin successful peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) eradication.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is a significant pathogen of small ruminants and is prevalent in much of Africa, the Near and Middle East and Asia. Despite the availability of an efficacious and cheap live-attenuated vaccine, the virus has continued to spread, with its range stretching from Morocco in the west to China and Mongolia in the east. Some of the world's poorest communities rely on small ruminant farming for subsistence and the continued endemicity of PPRV is a constant threat to their livelihoods. Moreover, PPRV's effects on the world's population are felt broadly across many economic, agricultural and social situations. This far-reaching impact has prompted the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) to develop a global strategy for the eradication of this virus and its disease. PPRV is a morbillivirus and, given the experience of these organizations in eradicating the related rinderpest virus, the eradication of PPRV should be feasible. However, there are many critical areas where basic and applied virological research concerning PPRV is lacking. The purpose of this review is to highlight areas where new research could be performed in order to guide and facilitate the eradication programme. These areas include studies on disease transmission and epidemiology, the existence of wildlife reservoirs and the development of next-generation vaccines and diagnostics. With the support of the international virology community, the successful eradication of PPRV can be achieved.

Analyses of nucleotide, codon and amino acids usages between peste des petits ruminants virus and rinderpest virus

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) and rinderpest virus (RPV) are two causative agents of an economically important disease for ruminants (i.e., sheep, cattle and goat). In this study, the nucleotide, codon and amino acid usages for PPRV and RPV have been analyzed by multivariate statistical methods. Relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) analysis represents that ACG for Thr and GCG for Ala are selected with under-representation in both PPRV and RPV, and AGA for Arg in PPRV and AGG for Arg in RPV are used with over-representation. The usage of nucleotide pair (CpG) tends to be removed from viral genes of the two viruses, suggesting that other evolutionary forces take part in evolutionary processes for viral genes in addition to mutation pressure from nucleotide usage at the third codon position. The overall nucleotide usage of viral gene is not major factor in shaping synonymous codon usage patterns, while the nucleotide usages at the third codon position and the nucleotide pairs play important roles in shaping synonymous codon usage patterns. Although PPRV and RPV are closely related antigenically, the codon and amino acid usage patterns for viral genes represent a significant genetic diversity between PPRV and RPV. Moreover, the overall codon usage trends for viral genes between PPRV and RPV are mainly influenced by mutation pressure from nucleotide usage at the third codon position and translation selection from hosts. Taken together, this is first comprehensive analyses for nucleotide, codon and amino acid usages of viral genes of PPRV and RPV and the findings are expected to increase our understanding of evolutionary forces influencing viral evolutionary pathway and adaptation toward hosts.

Rinderpest eradication: challenges for remaining disease free and implications for future eradication efforts.

In 2011, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) declared global freedom from rinderpest, formally announcing that rinderpest virus infections had been eliminated from susceptible livestock populations. At the same time, it was recognised that rinderpest virus, and material containing rinderpest virus, remained stored in an unspecified number of facilities across the world. Although natural infections had been eliminated, there remained a risk that rinderpest could reoccur if such infectious material accidentally leaked or was intentionally released from one of these facilities into a susceptible animal population. To minimise this risk, the OIE and FAO, with the support of international partners, set in place a framework to: reduce the quantity of remaining rinderpest-virus-containing material; ensure that such material was only stored in high-security facilities; regulate any handling or manipulation of the virus; maintain vigilance amongst livestock keepers and Veterinary Services in the post-eradication era; and develop contingency plans to deal with any suspected or actual reoccurrence of rinderpest disease. In 2016, five years after the declaration of global freedom from rinderpest, official reports to the OIE show that virus and virus-containing material remain stored in 21 countries worldwide in 22 separate facilities, of which only five have been inspected and approved for holding rinderpest virus or vaccine. There is still much work to be done to further reduce the risk of a reoccurrence.

Rinderpest experience.

Rinderpest, the most dreaded disease of cattle, originated as far back as the domestication of cattle, occurring in Asia more than 10,000 years ago. It has been the main preoccupation of Veterinary Service activities for many centuries and was the major motivation for establishing the first veterinary school in Lyon, France, in 1761. Gaining control of the disease was the impetus for the founding of many regional and international organisations (including the World Organisation for Animal Health). Outbreaks of rinderpest have led to food shortages and starvation, economic losses and poverty, social unrest, and disrupted transport networks in regions where agriculture was dependent on draught cattle. The rinderpest virus, causative agent of the disease, has also been used as a biological weapon in the past. Many regional rinderpest eradication campaigns have been implemented, including Joint Project 15; the Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC); the South Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign; the West Asia Rinderpest Eradication Campaign; and the Pan African Programme for the Control of Epizootics. All of these campaigns were supported by regional and international organisations, and the disease was finally eradicated in 2011. The benefit of PARC in terms of the value of avoided losses in cattle products due to the decrease in the disease's occurrence was estimated to be between 581,000 and 35,433,000 European currency units. Currently, the world is prepared to prevent the deliberate or accidental release of the remaining infectious rinderpest virus material which exists in research and diagnostic facilities across the world.