Rhine River Research Articles

Use of terrestrial photosieving and airborne topographic LiDAR to assess bed grain size in large rivers: a study on the Rhine River

AbstractMost grain size monitoring is still being conducted by manual sampling in the field, which is time consuming and has low spatial representation. Due to new remote sensing methods, some limitations have been partly overcome, but methodological progress is still needed for large rivers as well as in underwater conditions. In this article, we tested the reliability of two methods along the Old Rhine River (France/Germany) to estimate the grain size distribution (GSD) in above‐water conditions: (i) a low‐cost terrestrial photosieving method based on an automatic procedure using Digital Grain Size (DGS) software and (ii) an airborne LiDAR topo‐bathymetric survey. We also tested the ability of terrestrial photosieving to estimate the GSD in underwater conditions. Field pebble counts were performed to compare and calibrate both methods. The results showed that the automatic procedure of terrestrial photosieving is a reliable method to estimate the GSD of sediment patches in both above‐water and underwater conditions with clean substrates. Sensitivity analyses showed that environmental conditions, including solar lighting conditions and petrographic variability, significantly influence the GSD from the automatic procedure in above‐water conditions. The presence of biofilm in underwater conditions significantly altered the GSD estimation using the automatic procedure, but the proposed manual procedure overcame this problem. The airborne LiDAR topographic survey is an accurate method to estimate the GSD of above‐water bedforms and is able to generate grain size maps. The combination of terrestrial photosieving and airborne topographic LiDAR methods is adapted to assess the GSD over several kilometers long reaches of large rivers. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Diversion of Flow and Sediment Toward a Side Channel Separated From a River by a Longitudinal Training Dam

AbstractA human‐made entrance to a side channel separated from the river by a longitudinal training dam can be considered a new, emergent type of river bifurcation. To understand the processes controlling the diversion of flow and sediment toward the side channel at such bifurcations, a comprehensive field monitoring program was performed in the Waal River, which is the main branch of the Rhine River in the Netherlands. Local processes govern the flow field in the bifurcation region. The angle between the main river flow and the flow into the side channel increases with decreasing lateral and longitudinal distance to the bifurcation point, which corresponds to the head of the training dam. The general flow pattern can be well reproduced with a uniform depth, potential flow model consisting of a superposition of main channel flow and lateral outflow. For submerged flow conditions over the sill, the side channel hydraulic conditions influence the exchange processes, yet free flow side weir theory describes the flow field at this bifurcation type qualitatively well. The vertical flow structure in the side channel, which governs the sediment exchange between the main channel and the side channel, is steered by the geometrical details of the sill. The presence of the sill structure is key to controlling the morphological stability of this type of bifurcation given its primary influence on bed load sediment import and exerts an indirect impact on suspended sediment exchange.

Revealing 35 years of landcover dynamics in floodplains of trained lowland rivers using satellite data

AbstractLacking substantial erosive and sedimentation forces, regulated rivers allow their floodplains to become overgrown with forest, increasing the flood risk of the hinterland. In the Netherlands, floodplains have therefore been subjected to interventions, like clear cutting, lowering and creation of side channels, and management, consisting of grazing and mowing. However, the comprehension of how those activities influence landcover dynamics is lacking. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate long‐term landcover dynamics of a regulated river system through the lens of remote sensing. What transitions between landcover classes can be observed? And how (if) do management and interventions impact succession and retrogression of landcover classes? The study area comprised the upstream part of the Dutch Rhine River, its three branches and five adjacent floodplains. Satellite data (LandSat 5 and 8), encompassing a 35‐year period (1984–2018), were used for studying landcover dynamics. Landcover classification was based on seven classes: water, built‐up area, bare substrate, grass, herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and forest. Retrogression was highest for the landcover classes obstructing water flow (shrubs, forest and herbaceous vegetation), succession was most frequent on bare substrate, and water and grass were the most stable landcover classes. The regulated nature of the system became apparent from the spatial and temporal cacophony of landcover dynamics which differ from those of natural meandering rivers. This study showed that satellite data are useful for analyzing the impact of human activities within floodplains of regulated rivers and may assist in floodplain management aimed at combining water safety and nature policies.

Can we elevate the subsiding coastal plain of the Netherlands with controlled sedimentation?

Abstract. Half the surface area of the coastal plain of the Netherlands has been subsiding below mean sea-level as a result of peatland drainage. At present, the low elevation is sustained, because sedimentation necessary to aggrade the coastal plain back to natural elevations is hampered by engineering structures. Alternatively, controlled sedimentation is a discussed method to elevate the coastal plain. This can either be achieved by allowing water courses to deliver sediments to designated areas, or by anthropogenic deposition. Here, we assess the possibilities of this strategy by determining whether natural systems or anthropogenic deposition are sufficient to elevate the surface to mean high water (MHW), taking into account IPCC projected minimum and maximum forecasted sea-level rise (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5), and predicted future subsidence. We use the 3D geological subsurface model GeoTOP to quantify sediments; i.e. clay and sand that were naturally delivered to the coastal plain by series of tidal inlets and the Rhine river system. Furthermore, we quantify the amount of anthropogenic deposition, and analyze documented supplies. Finally, we discuss the implications of controlled sedimentation in designated areas by providing examples of past embankment breaches. We quantify that 16.98 km3 of sediments are required to elevate the surface to MHW, and between 22.41 and 29.29 km3 at the end of the 21st century. We estimate that 45.30 km3 of sediments were delivered by the tidal systems during 3000 years (52 % sand), 20.18 km3 by the Rhine river system during 8000 years (29 % sand), and 3.59 km3 of anthropogenic deposition. We conclude that the coastal plain of the Netherlands cannot be elevated to more safe levels with controlled sedimentation. Exceptions are areas proximal to tidal systems with high sediment yields. Anthropogenic deposition, combining natural sedimentation with supplied sediments, or allowing peat growth in inundated areas could be viable alternatives as well as.

Scaling Point‐Scale (Pedo)transfer Functions to Seamless Large‐Domain Parameter Estimates for High‐Resolution Distributed Hydrologic Modeling: An Example for the Rhine River

AbstractMoving toward high‐resolution gridded hydrologic models asks for novel parametrization approaches. A high‐resolution conceptual hydrologic model (wflow_sbm) was parameterized for the Rhine basin in Europe based on point‐scale (pedo)transfer functions, without further calibration of effective model parameters on discharge. Parameters were estimated on the data resolution, followed by upscaling of parameter fields to the model resolution. The method was tested using a 6‐hourly time step at four model resolutions (1.2, 2.4, 3.6, and 4.8 km), followed by a validation with discharge observations and a comparison with actual evapotranspiration (ETact) estimates from an independent model (DMET Land Surface Analysis Satellite Application Facility). Additionally, the scalability of parameter fields and simulated fluxes was tested. Validation of simulated discharges yielded Kling‐Gupta Efficiency (KGE) values ranging from 0.6 to 0.9, except for the Alps where a volume bias caused lower performance. Catchment‐averaged temporal ETact dynamics were comparable with independent ET estimates (KGE ≈ 0.7), although wflow_sbm model simulations were on average 115 mm yr−1 higher. Spatially, the two models were less in agreement (SPAEF = 0.10), especially around the Rhine valley. Consistent parameter fields were obtained, and by running the model at the different resolutions, preserved ETact fluxes were found across the scales. For recharge, fluxes were less consistent with relative errors around 30% for regions with high drainage densities. However, catchment‐averaged fluxes were better preserved. Routed discharge in headwaters was not consistent across scales, although simulations for the main Rhine River were. Better processing (scale independent) of the river and drainage network may overcome this issue.

Effects of Transverse Groynes on Meso-Habitat Suitability for Native Fish Species on a Regulated By-Passed Large River: A Case Study along the Rhine River

River regulations ultimately degrade fluvial forms and morphodynamics and simplify riparian and aquatic habitats. For several decades, river restoration actions have been performed to recover geomorphic processes and diversify these habitats to enhance both river biodiversity and ecosystem services. The objective of this study is to provide quantitative feedback on the experimental restoration of a large regulated and by-passed river (the Upper Rhine downstream of the Kembs Dam, France/Germany). This restoration consisted of the construction of two transverse groynes and the removal of bank protection. A monitoring framework composed of topo-bathymetric surveys as well as flow velocity and grain size measurements was established to assess the channel morphodynamic responses and evaluate their effects on habitat suitability for five native fish species using habitat models. A riverscape approach was used to evaluate the landscape changes in terms of both the configuration and the composition, which cannot be considered with classic approaches (e.g., Weighted Usable Area). Our results show that the two transverse groynes and, to a lesser extent, bank erosion, which was locally enhanced by the two groynes, increased habitat diversity due to the creation of new macroforms (e.g., pools and mid-bars) and fining of the bed grain size. Using a riverscape approach, our findings highlight that the restoration improved eel and juvenile nase species due to slowing down of the current and the deposition of fine sediments downstream of both groynes. As a consequence, the restoration improved the habitat suitability of the studied reach for more fish species compared with the pre-restoration conditions. This study also demonstrates that the salmon habitats downstream of the restored reach were improved due to fining of the bed grain size. This finding highlights that, for restorations aimed at fish habitats, the grain size conditions must be taken into consideration along with the flow conditions. Furthermore, the implementation of groynes, while not a panacea in terms of functional restoration, can be a strategy for improving fish habitats on highly regulated rivers, but only when more functional and natural options are impossible due to major constraints.

Correction to: Compositional dynamics of suspended sediment in the Rhine River: sources and controls

Correction to: Compositional dynamics of suspended sediment in the Rhine River: sources and controls

Diversity patterns in microfloras recovered from Miocene brown coals of the lower Rhine Basin reveal distinct coupling of the structure of the peat‐forming vegetation and continental climate variability

Brown coal deposits of the Lower Rhine Basin, northwest Germany, cover the late Burdigalian to Serravallian and most of the Tortonian enabling access to observations of vegetation dynamics during the Miocene Climatic Optimum and Late Miocene Cooling. Based on a total of 500 microfloras sampled from brown coal seams in the Bergheim and Inden open cast mines, structural changes in the vegetation are studied in comparatively stable environments of persisting coastal mires. In order to minimize the impact of local edaphic conditions in the peat bog, the palynomorph record is characterized as diversity using plant functional types (PFTs). In total, 41 herbaceous and arboreal PFTs are assigned to pollen and spores types based on their botanical affinity.The diversity spectra reveal a variable proportion of herbaceous and shrubby PFTs attaining a mean of 30%, in both the middle and late Miocene sample sets. With ca. 70% of the total diversity attributable to arboreal functional types, the peat‐forming vegetation of the studied Miocene strata classifies as a swamp forest. The composition of the arboreal fraction shows a long‐term declining trend in the proportions of thermophilous evergreen types among broadleaved PFTs following the overall climate cooling throughout the studied time. Conifers became more diverse during the Langhian (ca. 15%, at a mean) and attained a high diversity level of ca. 20% of the total PFT diversity in the Tortonian. The diversity proportions of conifer PFTs among other arboreal components and the composition of the broadleaved angiosperm PFT fraction display a pointed short‐term variability that could probably be related to eccentricity cycles when considering the available independent stratigraphic framework. Our results suggest a distinct coupling of the structure of the peat‐forming vegetation and continental climate variability in the study area.

Spatial and temporal patterns of suspended sediment concentrations in the Rhine River

Suspended sediment is a natural and crucial component and plays a crucial role in the hydrological, ecological and geomorphological functioning of the river system. The main objective of this study was to understand the spatial and temporal variation of SSC in Rhine River. This study used daily data of suspended sediment concentration from 1952 to 2016 from SSC model Sutari et al. (submitted manuscript, 2019) and daily data of water discharge collected from International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (IKSR) and Dutch Rijkswaterstaat from 1995 to 2016 to understand the change of SSC. Analyses of product images suggest that the change of SSC shows a marked increase of about 6 mg/L at Upper Rhine (km 0 to km 435), a gradual increase of about 3 mg/L at Middle Rhine (km 435 to km 735), and is relatively constant at Lower Rhine (km 735 to km 865). Turning to seasonal variation, high SSC is mostly found in winter while low SSC is mostly found in summer. However, another result shows that the SSC tend to be high in June at almost all monitoring stations where the discharge is minimum. Meanwhile, under high discharge condition, the Mosel River gives the most significant contribution of SSC to the Rhine compared to other tributaries due to having a high discharge.

Work on The Principles of Geology is “interrupted,” and Charles Lyell investigates the nature and formation of loess deposits

Charles Lyell's life work, the influential textbook and philosophical treatise The Principles of Geology, helped to shape the Victorian age. There were few diversions from the central task of the Principles of Geology in the course of the twelve editions. Perhaps the most significant and notable was the discovery and investigation of loess; a silty sediment, often of considerable thickness, and widely distributed in the Rhine valley. He made a significant contribution to loess studies and, with his father-in-law, Leonard Horner, explored the loess regions of the Rhine Valley. The loess period lasted roughly from 1830 to 1836, and he established the first paradigm theory for the formation of loess deposits from deposition in a lake or perhaps from slow-moving water. This held sway until displaced by the aeolian theory of F. von Richthofen.

The lateglacial and holocene in the Zorn ried at Weyersheim (Alsace, France): new data on palaeoenvironments and settlement dynamics of a humid area in the periphery of the rhine valley

La plaine du Rhin est ponctuee de vastes zones humides, ou rieds, caracterisees par des sols argileux sombres evolues et des formations tourbeuses. Ces rieds pourraient avoir joue un role important dans les dynamiques de peuplement de l’espace rhenan. Les operations archeologiques menees recemment au sud de la confluence du Rhin et de la Zorn, son principal affluent vosgien en aval de Strasbourg, permettent d’eclairer l’histoire du principal ried au nord de la ville depuis la fin du dernier cycle glaciaire. Les resultats presentes ici completent un modele d’evolution general elabore dans les annees 80. Ils temoignent d’un deplacement de la bande active du Rhin vers l’est au cours du Subboreal (3450-820 cal BCE) qui a permis l’edification d’un cone alluvial par la Zorn et le developpement d’une zone humide occupee par une prairie et des aulnes. Si l’homme est present dans le secteur des la fin du Neolithique (IVe millenaire avant notre ere), les principaux vestiges archeologiques decouverts sont les restes d’un etablissement rural compose de plusieurs bâtiments et annexes du VIIe siecle avant notre ere. Pour le debut du Subatlantique (a partir de 820 ans cal BCE), les donnees environnementales concernant le drainage des sols et le maintien ou non de l’aulnaie semblent contradictoires. Cette contradiction peut resulter des limites de la calibration des datations au radiocarbone, mais surtout refleter une complexite croissante des systemes socio-economiques et agro-pastoraux.

Estimation of suspended sediment concentrations in the Rhine River using Landsat Satellite Images

The traditional methods for measuring water quality and suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) are time-consuming and often do not give the spatial and temporal detail needed for assessment of the water quality and sediment transport. The determination of the suspended sediment concentrations using remote sensing through the main channel and tributaries of Rhine River can provide valuable information to assess the spatial and temporal of the suspended sediment. The main objective of this study is to estimate the suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) using Landsat satellite images. This study developed a method of quantifying SSC based on Landsat imagery and corresponding SSC data from the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (IKSR) and Dutch Rijkswaterstaat from 1995 to 2016. The model was built using the ratio of logarithmic transformation of a red/green band and logarithmic transformation of SSC based on in-situ sampling measurements. The SSC model works well and shows satisfactory performance. Landsat satellites (Thematic Mapper (TM), Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), Operational Land Imager (OLI)) explained an acceptable result accuracy.

Celtic Provenance in Traditional Herbal Medicine of Medieval Wales and Classical Antiquity.

The Celtic linguistic community dominated large spans of Central and Western Europe between 800 BC and 500 AD, but knowledge of their traditional medicine is very limited. Multiple progressive plant gains in Neolithic settlements along the Danube and up the Rhine valleys suggested that taxon diversity of gathered plants peaked at the Balkans and was subsequently reduced as crop and gathered plants packages were adopted and dispersed throughout Neolithic Europe. This process coincided with the Bronze Age migration of the R1b proto-Celtic tribes, and their herbal traditions were occasionally recorded in the classic Greco-Roman texts on herbal medicines. The provenance of Celtic (Gallic) healing methods and magical formulas as recorded by Pliny, Scribonius Largus, and Marcellus Empiricus can still be found in the first part of the medieval Welsh (Cymry) herbal manuscript Meddygon Myddfai (recipes 1–188). Although the majority of Myddfai I recipes were based on the Mediterranean herbal tradition of Dioscorides and Macer Floridus, they preserved the unique herbal preparation signatures distinct from continental and Anglo-Saxon counterparts in increased use of whey and ashes as vehicles for formulation of herbal remedies. Six plants could be hypothetically attributed to the Celtic (Welsh) herbal tradition including foxglove (Digitalis purpurea L.), corn bellflower (Legousia speculum-veneris L.), self-heal (Prunella vulgaris L.), sharp dock (Rumex conglomeratus Murray), water pimpernel (Samolus valerandi L.), and river startip (Scapania undulata L.) This review provides initial evidence for traces of Celtic framework in the Welsh herbal tradition and warrants further investigations of bioactivity and clinical applications of the described plant leads.

A Roman well in Waldgirmes (Hesse, Germany): palynological analyses supported by plant macro-remains and micromorphological studies

Waldgirmes in Hesse (Germany) is one of the oldest Roman towns east of the Rhine River. It was founded in 3 bc and abandoned after ad 9, probably in ad 16, when the departing soldiers set fire to the town. In one of the two excavated wells, partially laminated, organic-rich sediments have been preserved which were deposited during the colonisation of the town. The pollen, plant macro-remains and micromorphological sampling strategy of the well sediment allows us to draw a detailed picture of the vegetation and its development in and around the settlement area. Through thin section analyses, the stratigraphy and composition of sediments could be differentiated in more detail. Deriving from different source areas, the pollen and plant macro-remains assemblages gave insights into the tree species composition of the surroundings as well as the vegetation in the settlement. The town was founded within a cultural landscape that had existed for centuries, and not in the dense dark Germanic forests described by Tacitus around ad 100. The contemporaneous woodlands were dominated by oaks. In the well within the town, not only characteristic components of urban waste (bones, charcoal, ash), but also plant remains from the immediate surroundings (pollen, phytoliths, seeds, fruits, leaves) were preserved. Typical urban vegetation from trodden paths, nutrient-enriched sites, and grazing areas could be reconstructed. Thick leaf layers prove the presence of trees, especially oaks, close to the well. Horticulture is evident through cultural indicators, and there are also signs of cereal processing within the settlement.

Boundary conditions for damming of a large river by fallout during the 12,900 BP Plinian Laacher See Eruption (Germany). Syn-eruptive Rhine damming II

The Rhine River (Germany) - the largest river in Western Europe - was dammed by pyroclastic material multiple times during the major Plinian Laacher See Eruption (12,900 BP). Dams formed both upstream and downstream of the broad tectonic Lower Neuwied Basin (LNB) which interrupts the narrow Rhine canyon. Here we document upstream damming of the Rhine River at the entrance to the LNB close to the present city of Koblenz due to overloading with tephra fall into the Rhine and its major tributaries, the Moselle and the Lahn. The dam was formed repeatedly during rapid pumice tephra fall events and became breached during breaks in eruptive activity, causing extensive, high-energy flooding throughout the entire basin. The ephemeral Koblenz dams differed significantly from “normal” volcanically-induced dams by being composed principally of washed-together pumice clasts and some driftwood. The porous nature of pumice and its ability to absorb water were crucial factors. Thus, a large volume percentage of the tephra that had fallen into the Rhine floated submerged within the upper part of the water column or swam at the surface. Moreover, the absorption of the river water by the pumice clasts increased the sediment:water ratio of the two-phase flow considerably. We here present a model of dam formation resembling the formation of ice jams. We visualize the Koblenz dams to have been elongate, partly floating and partly grounded, permeable plugs several kilometers long and rising no higher than the flood plain. Damming was most plausibly initiated in the LNB within the area of maximum tephra loading and propagated upstream in a chain reaction similar to the formation of traffic jams. A major dam was finally accumulated at the bottleneck entrance to the LNB, a site combining several favorable conditions: the upstream multi-channel Rhine was confined to a single channel, change of flow direction by 125°, extremely low gradient (0.19‰) starting already 24 km upstream of the bottleneck, constant decrease of flow velocity over several kilometers towards the bottleneck and the Moselle River - largest tributary of the Rhine within the LNB and an important conveyor of additional tephra masses – entered the Rhine only 700 m upstream of the bottleneck. We assume that the Koblenz dams could only have formed and been stabilized by an extremely long “foot region” that extended many kilometers downstream and that was possibly connected to one or several low-rise secondary jams/dams. The backwater of Lake Brohl that was dammed by pyroclastic flows 7 km downstream of the LNB about halfway through the eruption extended upstream into the LNB during the second Plinian stage of the Laacher See Eruption and was probably a major factor contributing to the formation and large size of Koblenz Dam No.4. The Koblenz dams were probably not completely sealed most of the time. This way, the major pre-eruptive Rhine channel received some water. An equilibrium condition was established that allowed the dams to remain stable as long as tephra fell into the Rhine relatively continuously.

Linking plant strategies to environmental processes in floodplains of lowland rivers

The successful use of relations between environmental processes (filters) and either plant traits or plant strategies has boosted ecological research. Various studies identified environmental filters shaping plant species composition. However, this approach is scarce in research on vegetation succession in floodplains of heavily modified rivers. Especially in these ecosystems, mechanistic knowledge is needed to understand ecological effects of human interventions and to develop strategies for floodplain rehabilitation. The aim of this study is therefore to explore whether the application of the filter-plant strategy concept reveals a better understanding of environmental drivers for vegetation succession than analyses of just species composition. And if so, could this information support floodplain management? Ten plots (1 m2) with herbaceous vegetation were studied in each of three floodplains along two distributaries of the Rhine River in the Netherlands. For each plot, environmental filters for establishment of plant species were measured (e.g. soil moisture, soil nutrient content and grain size). Data on species composition of vegetation and plant strategies, like life and growth form, were collected. The data were analyzed using the combination of fuzzy clustering and multiple regression trees. Both species composition and plant strategy composition reflected a soil moisture and nutrient gradient, but the filter-plant strategy analyses also revealed the importance of disturbances (excavation and summer inundation) for shaping vegetation composition. The plant strategy composition supplemented species surveys and benefitted understanding species assembling by anthropogenic disturbances. Moreover, application of the filter-plant strategy concept can provide insight in functional diversity, biomass and hydraulic roughness of vegetation and may support decision making on the optimization of floodplain functions.

The potential natural vegetation of large river floodplains – From dynamic to static equilibrium

The potential natural vegetation (PNV) is a useful benchmark for the restoration of large river floodplains because very few natural reference reaches exist. Expert-based approaches and different types of ecological models (static and dynamic) are commonly used for its estimation despite the conceptual differences they imply. For natural floodplains a static concept of PNV is not reasonable, as natural disturbances cause a constant resetting of succession. However, various forms of river regulation have disrupted the natural dynamics of most large European rivers for centuries. Therefore, we asked whether the consideration of succession dynamics and time dependent habitat turnover are still relevant factors for the reconstruction of the PNV.To answer this we compared the results of a simulation of the vegetation succession (1872–2016) of a segment of the upper Rhine river after regulation (damming, straightening and bank protection) to different statistic and expert-based modelling approaches for PNV reconstruction. The validation of the different PNV estimation methods against a set of independent reference plots and the direct comparison of their results revealed very similar performances. We therefore conclude that due to a lack of large disturbances, the vegetation of regulated large rivers has reached a near-equilibrium state with the altered hydrologic regime and that a static perception of its PNV may be justified. Consequently, statistical models seem to be the best option for its reconstruction since they need relatively few resources (data, time, expert knowledge) and are reproducible.

The Watershed Architecture of the Mekong River Basin

In this project, I suggest an alternative, speculative future in counterpoint to the recent construction and planned development of large-scale, water-based infrastructural transformations in Southeast Asia. Critical of massive hydropower dam constructions that tend to prioritize certain interests over others, I question the future viability of such actions when weighed in the context of possible negative effects that such dams may have across the entire river basin. Additionally, the current forecast of climate change stressors, especially in regards to freshwater availability, positions the future of the basin as uncertain. The focus of this essay is part of my multiyear project titled “Way Beyond Bigness: The Need for a Watershed Architecture,” which studies the Mekong, Mississippi, and Rhine River Basins in relation to water-based infrastructure and design challenges.

The Danube, an Empire Boundary River: Settlements, Invasions, Navigation, and Trade Pathway

The Danube River basin was home to some of the world’s earliest human cultures such as the Danubian Neolithic cultures including the Linear Pottery culture. The Vucedol culture was famous for ceramics during the third millennium BC. Early settlement required fortresses and castles to be built on the Danube River to defend the settlements from invading forces. These included the Persia, Roman and Ottoman empires. Cities included Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade and Ruse. The risks include stream capture, settlement, invasions, navigation, trade, pollution, industrial and urban wastewater, over fishing, food insecurity, locks and dams, shoreline erosion and flooding. The primary objective was to document the settlement history on the Danube River which became Eastern Europe’s pathway for settlement, invasions, navigation and trade in the Danube basin has put the river at risk for more than 2500 years. River capturing of the Danube by the Rhine River has reduced the length and flow of the Danube. The Danube River has had a huge economic, social and environmental impact on 10 European countries. However, with 10 countries sharing the river it has been difficult to manage and mitigate the risks and threats to the Danube River and its water quality.

Learning from Disasters Past: The Case of an Early Seventeenth-Century Plague in Northern Italy and Beyond

Learning from Disasters Past:The Case of an Early Seventeenth-Century Plague in Northern Italy and Beyond Dean Phillip Bell (bio) Natural disasters are a regular feature of our news feeds. Deadly earthquakes, hurricanes, and tsunamis, devastating flood waters, widespread animal infestations, and significant climate shifts all form part of our living memory. And this does not even take into account COVID-19 and other epidemics and pandemics that have reared their heads over the past couple decades. Natural disasters have a real impact, affecting more than 200 million people annually—seven times as many people as are affected by warfare each year.1 At times, natural disasters lead to loss of property and life; at other times, they upend normal routines and rituals, impede travel, lead to increasing prices or shortages of food, or exasperate political disaffection. They often also have significant effects on the perceptions of those who live through them—leading to calls for religious reform, the marginalization of certain social groups, interreligious tensions, and shifts in cultural expression, for example.2 Natural disasters can literally change the course of history, suddenly challenging received ideas and social and political conditions or escalating extant or latent tensions and conflicts in a given society, regionally, or even globally.3 [End Page 55] As an early modern historian who has explored some of these events in the past, I have investigated their impact on the people who experienced them and their connection with, or amplification of, other upheavals, both natural and social. These events have provided opportunities to peer into communal structures and tensions, as well as the complexity of the relations Jews had with their non-Jewish neighbors and authorities alike, pointing both to overlaps in how Jews and non-Jews understood the world around them and to more subtle differences that reflected differentiation as well.4 As we experience successive natural disasters in our own day, I have increasingly found myself asking what, if anything, we can learn from the past. In what follows, I turn to a brief case study related to Jewish responses to an early modern plague outbreak in northern Italy to consider possible lessons we might draw from history for understanding and responding to natural disasters today. First, a few words of context are in order. ________ Natural disasters have the potential to provide us with insights into Jewish life and experiences, as well as the broader social, cultural, religious, economic, and political environments that shaped them in different periods. I have previously written about a fire that devastated the Jewish community of Frankfurt am Main in the early eighteenth century and about floods that affected Jews and Jewish communities along the Rhine River some 70 years later. Sources left behind during each moment teach us a great deal about life in Jewish communities both before and as they were impacted by such natural disasters, including socio-economic hierarchies, local authority structures, community customs, and the various resources people had—or did not have—at their disposal, for example. The available accounts of both events—produced by Jews and Christians alike—also provide opportunities to see the connections between different Jewish communities and to uncover the complex and often nuanced relationships that existed between Jews and non-Jews5—from legal prescriptions related to Jewish quarters, business, and construction to religious stereotypes, debates, and polemics. They also illuminate the coordination of responses between Jewish and non-Jewish authorities and the development of policies related both to the crisis at hand and to longer-term political and social concerns. At times, Jews met with persecution or found their property damaged or destroyed as they returned to their homes after having fled the plague.6 At others, they appeared to be [End Page 56] part of the broader civic community and were treated accordingly. During the Frankfurt fire of 1711 Jews found lodgings with Christians across the city, in some cases for an extended period of time (some hosted, some rented)—much to the chagrin of Christian religious authorities who believed that Jews might corrupt the religious sensibilities of their Christian hosts with their religious practice or introduce what they saw as Jewish blasphemies into Christian...